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Pupil's Text Book on 




Anatomy 



Physiology 



AND EFFECTS OF 



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Hygiene 



Narcotics 



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The Teachers' Manual 



PUPILS' TEXT-BOOK 



Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene, 



INCLUDING THE EFFECTS OF 



ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS UPON THE 
HUMAN SYSTEM, 



DESIGNED TO ACCOMPANY 



The TEACHERS' Anatomical Aid 



PROF. J. K. RASSWEILER, A. l^f^^'^^opYRiGHT- %>V 

PROF. H. H. RASSWEILER, A. M> ^ / --^tA* 

1 



REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. 



published ey 
CENTRAL SCHOOL SUPPLY HOUSE, 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. 



c- 



\ 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1889, 

By CEiTTRAii School Supply House, 
in the office of the Librarian of CongreFS, at Wa^^hington, D. C. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1890, 

By Central School Supply House, 
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE. 



This book is intended to go into the schools of 
the country as a companion to the '' TEACiiEiis' Ana- 
tomical Aid," which is supposed to be before the 
class during every exercise or recitation in Physi- 
ology, and to which the illustrative references, found 
throughout these pages, relate. 

To the teacher who gives oral lessons in Physi- 
ology, by the use of the Aid, this volume oflPers 
assistance in presenting the truths of the science in 
proper order, plain language, and with many illus- 
trations gathered within the range of the pupils' 
observation and experience. Thus, even inexperi- 
enced teachers are furnished with methods and 
material to conduct a well-arranged course of daily 
drills on a subject of surpassing importance and 
interest. 

To the teacher who conducts a recitation, with the 
use of the Aid, this work offers guidance in point- 
ing out, precisely, by its frequent references, those 
parts or features on the plates or manikin sections, 
which illustrate any topic in hand, as found in the' 
current text-books on Physiology. 

While this book is thus intended to be helpful to 

(1) 



2 ^ PREFACE, 

teachers of all grades of experience, it is, at the 
same time, adapted for use as a text-book for ele- 
mentary classes. The practical results which may- 
be obtained from such a use of it, in connection 
with the Anatomical Aid, will be found to be more 
satisfactory than those which can be attained by any 
other method of instruction in the elements of 
Physiology. 

When used as a text-book with the Aid, the latter 
should be made conveniently accessible to the 
pupils. This can easily be done in any school- 
room. The objection that the pupils will injure the 
charts by handling them, is a mischievous notion. 
They are entitled to such privileges. If w ell and 
kindly advised, they will handle them properly and 
will take pride in carefully preserving them from 
injury. 



TABLE OF C0NTE:N^TS. 



THE SKELETON. 

PAGE. 

Bones— Like the FraiiKnvork of a House— Number of Bones— Shape- 
Structure— How United— Bound Together by Ligaments— Uses 
of the Bones— Division of the Skeleton— Table of the Skeleton— 
Bones of the Head— The Skall— The Face— Bones of the Trunk— 
The Spinal Column— Vertebrae -The Chest— The Pelvis— i?ones of 
the Upper Extremities— The Shoulder— The Arm— J?o?ies of the 
Lower Extremities— The Thigh— Lower Leg and Foot— Health of 
the ^one^— Outline— Questions 5 

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

The Muscles— Number and Structure of Muscles— Tendons— Use of 
the Muscles— Language of the Muscles —Two Kinds of Muscular 
Action— How Muscles Act— Antagonists, or Counter Muscles- 
Some Prominent Muscles and Their Names— Health of the Wws,- 
cleB-Chctline— Questions 19 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The Brain- Structure — 1 rotection to the Brain — Divisions of the 
Brain — Hemispheres— Work of the Cerebrum— Work of the Cere- 
bellum—The Spinal Cord — The Nerves— Nervous Action— Reflex 
Nervous Action -Sympathetic Nervous Action— Health of the 
Nervous System.— Outline — Questionn 29 

THE SPECIAL SENSES. 

Nerves of Common Sensation— Nerves of Special Sensation— T/ie 
^ye— Protection of the Eye— Tear Apparatus— Oil Glands— Eye 
Muscles— The White Coat of the Eyeball— The Black Coat— The 
Nervous Coat— The Humors of the 'Eye— The Eai^— The Nerve of 
Hearing— The Outer Ear— The Middle Ear— The Inner Ear— How 
we Hear-r/ie Sense of Smell— Tiow we Perceive Odors—The Sense 
of Taste— The Tongue — How we Perceive Taste— Outline — Ques- 
tions 41 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 

Body-Building— Repair— Blood— The Heart— Covering of the Heart- 
Arteries and Veins— Intersections— Structure of the Arteries- 
Structure of the Veins— The Capillaries— The Course of the Blood- 
Summarized Course— Three Divisions of the Circulation— The 
Portal Division— Blood Change in the Capillarie=»— The Muscular 
Work of the Heart— Blood- VesselWounds— Practical Suggestions- 
Health of the ('irculatory System— Outline— Questions 55 

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 

Work of the ResmVatorv System— Structure of the Lungs— The 
Trachea— What Takes Place in the Lungs?— How we Breathe- 
Chief Breathing Muscles— Pleura— H*^alth of the Respiratory 
Organs— Exercise— Impurities of the Breath— Ventilation— TAe 
Voice— The Larynx— An Experiment— Speech— OuiZine-QwesNons 69 

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 

Body-Building from Blood— Aid of the Muscular System— Work of 
the Teeth— Number of Teeth— Structure of a Tooth— Work of the 
Salivary Glands— Work of the Pharynx and Oesophagus— Work of 



4: CONTENTS. 

the Stomach— Use of the Gastric Juice— Work of the Pylorus- 
Work of the Liver— Work of the Pancreas— Health of the Diges- 
tive System— Eating Too Fast— Eating Too Much— Eating Too 
Frequently — Eating Indigestible Food— Exercise— Ow^Wne—Qwes- 
tions ~ 81 

THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 

Absorption— Stomach-Wall Absorption— Intestinal Absorption — In- 
testinal Villi — Structure of the Villi— Lacteals in the Villi — Use of 
the Lacteals — Thoracic Duct — What Has Been Done — Assimila- 
tion — Kecapitulation—The Bread— The Butter — Lymphatic Ab- 
sorption—Structure and Distribution of the Lymphatics— Lymph — 
Origin of Lymph— The Lymphatics a System of Drainage— Use of 
the Lymphatic Glands — Lacteals a Part of the Lymphatics— Lym- 
phatics Compared with the Blood-Vessels — Other Lymphatic 
Functions — Importance of Healthy Lymphatic Action — Outline — 
Questions 90 

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 

Excretory Organs — Excretion by the Large Intestine— Excretion by 
the Lungs — Carbon-Dioxide — Nature of Carbon-Dioxide — Watery 
Vapor— Other Products of the Breath — Farther Test of the Breath — 
Ventilation— Excretion by the Liver —Excretion by the Kidneys — 
Work of the Kidneys — How the Kidneys Work— The Skin— The 
Structure of the Skin — Complexion Cells— Blood-vessels — Nerve- 
loops- Oil-glands— The Hair -The Nails— Fat Cells— Skin Mus- 
cles-Excretion by the Skin -Ordinary Perspiration — Sensible 
Perspiration— Quantity of Skin Excretion— Cleanliness— Ow^Zine— 
Questions... 104 

ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 

Value of a Sound Body— Abuse of the Body— What is Strong Drink?— 
Nature of Alcohol— Sources of Alcohol— From Sugar to Alcohol- 
How is This Change Produced?— How the Wines are Made— How 
the Beers are Made— How the Stronger Liquors are Produced— 
Proportion of Alcohol in Various Drinks —Adulteration of hi- 
quoT8— Effects of Alcohol on the Muscles — Effects of Alcohol on the 
Nervous System— How Does Alcohol Affect the Brain? — Alcoholic 
Excitement — Alcoholic Depression— Drunk— Dead Drunk — Deliri- 
um Tremens — Effects on the Brain Structure — Alcoholic Softening 
of the Brain— Effects on the Nerves — Effects of Alcohol on the 
Circulation — Effect on the Heart's Action — Effect on the Heart's 
Structure— Effect on the Structure of the Blood Channels— ^Jfecfs 
of A Icohol on the Respiration — Effect on the Blood Corpuscles- 
Effect on the Breathing MxiQcles— Effects of Alcohol on the Diges- 
tive Organs— E&eQ,ts> on the Stomach— Inflammation— Congestion— 
Ulceration— Gradual, but Sure Destruction— Alcohol and the 
Liver— Results— Alcohol and the Kidneys 122 

TOBACCO AND THE BODY. 

Chief Poisonous Principle— Its Use Unnatural— Cigarette Smoking- 
Experiment— Effects on the Respiratory Organs— Smoker's Can- 
cer— Effect on the Circulation— Opium _ 147 

APPENDIX. 

Supplementary Description of the Structure and Functions of the 
Organs of the Circulatory Sft/sfem— Blood— The Heart Valves— The 
Arterial System— Regulation of Blood Supply— Vaso-motor Nerves 
and Muscles— yl General View of the Structure of the Body as 
shown by the Manikins— How to Use the Aid— Index to the Ner- 
vous System ., , 156 



THE SKELETON. 



BONES. 

Like the The framework of the body is com- 

o/a'iiouse^ posed of boues and ligaments. It is 
called the skeleton. What beams, joists 
and rafters are to a house, bones are to the body. 
As each timber in the framework of a building is 
fitted for its own particular place and purpose, so 
each one of the bones of the body has its own place 
and is in every way precisely adapted, in shape and 
strength, for a special use. 

There are two hundred and eight bones 
™ber ^^ ^j^^ skeleton. This does not include 

of Bones. 

the teeth, for they are really not a 
part of the skeleton. Thirty-four of the bones of 
the body are single — only one of the same kind. 
Besides these, there are eighty-seven pairs, the two 
bones of each pair being alike — one on each side of 
the body. 

The skeleton plate shows that the bones 

are very different in shape. Some are 

long, like this (leg bone), for example. Others 

(5) 



6 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

are nearly round, like these bones of the wrist. 
Some are quite flat, like this large, spreading bone 
at the shoulder (16), or these broad bones in the 
lower part of the main body (3). 

The bones are very hard and stronef. 

structure. »^ ^ 

''Hard as a bone" is a familiar compar- 
ison. We shall not be surprised at their hardness 
and strength when we shall have learned what im- 
portant uses they serve in the body. There are two 
kinds of material in the structure of a bone. One 
part is called animal mailer and the other is called 
mineral matter. If the bone were composed of 
animal matter alone, it would bear no pressure and 
keep no permanent shape. If it were made entirely 
of mineral matter it would be too brittle, and conse- 
quently would break very easily. So these two kinds 
of material are united together in such a way as to 
secure strength without too great brittleness. In 
childhood the bones are not easily broken. This is 
because in early life they contain about twice as 
much animal matter as mineral matter. What a wise 
protection against the ''bumps" and "tumbles" of 
the little ones. In middle life the two kinds of 
material are more nearly equally divided. In old 
age, however, the bones are very brittle, because, 
then, there is about twice as much mineral matter as 
animal matter in their structure. 

It is an easy and interesting experiment to sepa- 
rate these two kinds of bone material. Throw a flat 
bone, or piece of bone, into the fire. After a while 



THE SKELETON, 7 

you will find a part of it, like a cinder, among the 
ashes. This is the mineral part. The fire has 
burned out the animal matter. Take the ^'drum- 
stick" bone of a chicken and place it in a bottle con- 
taining a mixture made by filling the bottle half full 
of water and adding about half as much muriatic 
acid — a common drug which you can get for a trifle 
at the nearest drug store. This will take out the 
mineral matter from the bone and leave the animal 
matter. The mineral matter which you took from 
the fire was brittle or crumbling. The animal 
matter, when taken from the acid, is gluey and can 
be wound, like a cord, about the finger. The broad 
or flat bones, like those of the head, are not entirely 
solid. Between the two outside layers of such a bone 
there is a layer of spongy-like material. These 
three layers of structure in a flat bone can be clearly 
seen by looking at the edge of such a bone which 
has been sawed through. 

The long bones are generally hollow and contain 
a substance called marroio. At the ends they are 
usually thicker and more spongy. This serves to 
break the force or shock of heavy stepping or jump- 
ing with the lower limbs, or a hard stroke with the 
arm. The ends of the long bones are also covered 
with a smooth, white substance called cartilage. 
This aids in giving the bone an easy motion at the 
joint where it is united to another bone. 



8 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

The bones are united to each other in 
United different ways. Those which are quite 
movable are connected by joints. Some 
of these are called hinge-joints because they work 
like the hinge of a door. These (arm) bones 
which meet at the elbow are hinge- jointed. Raise 
and lower your forearm and notice particularly how 
the joint acts. The joints in the fingers and the 
knee are also hinge-joints. Another kind is called 
the ball and socket joint, where the round end of one 
bone moves in a hollow place of another. Here (a) 
at the hip is a good example of a ball and socket 
joint, where the round head of this large upper bone 
of the leg moves in a deep hollow of this lower bone 
of the main body. The bones of the head meet each 
other with jagged edges forming a seam-like junc- 
tion called a suture. One of these is clearly shown 
on this skeleton (12). Between the bones of the 
back are placed cushions of cartilage. This is a 
substance softer than bone and quite elastic, like 
rubber. This cushion arrangement between the 
bones of the back, is nicely shown on this plate. 
(Refer to cartilages between lumbar vertebrae.) 

The bones are bound to one another 

Bound To- , 7 . * rr,i 

gether by by ligaments. These are very strong 
i^igaments. ^^^ j^^j^ ^^le bones firmly in position. 
Some of these stout bands or ligaments are shown on 
this plate. Here (XVI) are the ligaments which 
bind together the bones of the hip. These (XXV, . 
XXVI) are the ligaments of the elbow joint. 



THE SKELETON, 9 



# 



Fses of 
the Bones. 



The bones of the body serve several 
important purposes. 1. They give the 
body its general shape. 2. They sup- 
port the softer material of the body within and 
around them. 3. They protect delicate and impor- 
tant parts against injury from without, as, for exam- 
ple, the brain, lungs and heart. 4. They serve as 
levers, to be moved by the muscles in the various 
movements of the body, as we shall learn more 
clearly, somewhat later. 

^. . . By looking: at the fisfure of the skeleton 

of the we perceive that the bones are grouped 

Skeleton. • , *> j i t • • ^ a 

into tour natural divisions, namely: 1. 
The bones of the head, 2. Those of the main body, 
or trimk, 3. Those of the upper extremities, or 
ai'ms. 4. Those of the lower extremities, or legs. 

We have now learned about the number, shapes, 
material, union, uses and groups of the bones of the 
skeleton. We are now ready to study the more 
important bones of each group more closely. 



10 



ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

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THE SKELETON. 11 

BONES OF THE HEAD. 

There are twenty-two bones in the head. 

XM© Skull. 

Eight of these are shaped and united in 
such a way as to form a sort of round box which is 
called the skull, or cranium. This is one of the most 
important parts of the skeleton, since it contains the 
brain, the most delicate organ of the body. The 
word organ, in physiology, means any single part of 
the body which serves a special purpose. Thus, the 
brain, heart, lungs and veins are organs. The skull^ 
or brain-box, is placed, like a dome, at the top of the 
structure of the body. It is wonderfully fitted for 
the protection of its tender contents. It is shaped 
for strength as well as for beauty. 

The front of the skull is formed by the frontal 
bone (1), or bone of the forehead. The two par^e/aZ 
bones (2) form the upper sides, and the two tem- 
poral bones (3) form the lower sides or the skull. 
At the back of the head (4, back view of skeleton) 
is the occipital bone. Two more of the skull bones 
form its lower part or base. These we will not 
name here; but you will find them named in the full 
table of the bones which has been given. 
_, _ The remainiue: fourteen bones of the 

The Face. ^ 

head give shape to the face. The two 

nasal bones (6) form the bridge of the nose, and the 
two malar bones (4) the prominence of the cheeks. 
The upper jaw is formed of the two upper maxillary 
bones (7). The lower jaw bone (8) is called the 



12 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

loiver maxillary. The teeth are set in sockets of 
these maxillary bones. 

BONES OF THE TRUNK. 

The main body is called the trunk. The upper 
part of the trunk is fitted to contain the lungs and the 
heart. Its lower part contains the stomach, liver and 
bowels. 

The great pillar of the body is the spinal 
Column. column. It bears aloft the head — the 

crowning part of the whole structure. It 
supports the great vital organs of the main body. 
It is most wonderfully constructed with reference to 
comfort and safety of life. Instead of being com- 
posed of but one or a few bones, it is built up of 
twenty-six pieces, which, while laid up one above the 
other, are separated from each other by very elastic 
cushions of cartilage. This does not only make the 
back- bone capable of bending forward, backward and 
sideways, but it makes the whole pillar springy, so 
that the delicate brain which rides at its summit is 
not affected by jarring from the heavy movements of 
the body. 

Twenty-four of the bones of the spinal 

column, or back, are called vertehrce 
These are firmly bound together by ligaments and 
interlocked with each other by their own projecting 
parts. An opening runs through each vertebra. 
These openings form the spinal canal through which 



THE SKELETON, 13 

the spinal cord, of which we shall learn hereafter, 

passes. The vertebriie are divided into three sets. The 

seven upper ones are in the neck. The next twelve 

are in the back proper; to these the twelve pairs of 

ribs are attached. The five lower vertebrae are in 

the region of the loins. They are very stout, as the 

figure shows, just as we would expect them to be, 

since they support a large part of the weight of the 

body. 

The upper part of the trunk, which con- 
Tlie Cliest. i. j. x 

tains the heart and lungs, is called the 

chest. The skeleton of the chest is formed behind, 
as you see, by the middle division of the spinal col- 
umn; on the sides by the W6s (12, 13), and in front 
by the sternum (10) or breast-bone. Here, again, we 
find a wise provision for the protection of life. The 
breast-bone is not near so hard as most of the other 
bones. It is consequently more flexible. The ribs 
are not directly united to the sternum, but are joined 
to it by cartilages. By these means, a heavy blow 
on the breast, which otherwise would seriously injure 
the organs within, is made comparatively harmless. 
The plate of the skeleton shows that the ribs are 
not all joined to the breast-bone in front. Seven 
pairs (12-13) are so joined. These are called trite 
ribs. The remaining five pairs (14-15) are called 
false ribs. 

The bones of the lower part of the trunk 

The Pelvis. , . . 

are shaped and joined so as to rorm a 
large bowl-shaped cavity. This is called the pelvis. 



14 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

Notice how broad and peculiarly formed these two 
(3) bones are. The sacrum (1) bone is wedged 
between these two bones at the back. 

BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES. 

Xhe Ii^ examining the shoulder, we first notice 

M^iiouider. these two collar-bones (8). Their use is 
to brace the shoulders properly apart; so one end 
rests against the breast-bone and the other against 
the shoulder. Next comes the shoulder-blade (16). 
These are so broad to allow the attachment of some 
very strong muscles of the upper part of the body. 
The upper arm has one lars^e bone called 

Tlie Arm. 

the Tiumerus (1). The radiits (2) and the 
ulna (3) are the bones of the lower arm. There 
are eiglit roundish little bones in each wrist (4), five 
longer ones in the middle of each hand (5), three 
short bones in each finger (6, 9, 10) and two in each 
thumb (7, 8). 

BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. 

Here we meet the largest bone of the 

TJie Thigh. . ht,, ^ 

skeleton (1). it is called the femur. 
Observe the round shape of its upper end (a). This 
is called the head of the femur. Moving in a hollow 
place of this large bone ( 3 ) , it forms the ball and socket 
joint of the hip. Do not fail to notice how securely 
the lower limbs are bound to the main body by these 
numerous strong ligaments. 



THE SKELETON. 15 

The lower leg has two bones — the tibia 
anrFoo^ (^0^ ^^^^^ the fib ulci (6). The knee-joint 

between the thigh bone and the bones of 
the lower leg, is protected by a fiat bone called the 
knee-pan (2). There are seven bones in each heel, 
five in the middle part of each foot, three in each of 
the larger toes, and two in each great toe. 

Notice this peculiarity in the form of the foot. It 
is curved or arched from the heel to the front. 
Here is another arrangement for springiness, with- 
out which, walking would not only become clumsy 
but painful. 

The bones of a grown person are so much 
theTBones. li^rdened by the mineral matter which 

has increased in their structure, that they 
are not easily changed in shape. They are more 
easily broken than bent. Neither is the full-grown 
joint likely to change in shape and character during 
the active years of life. So the general carriage of 
the body in adult life, depends on the habits and 
circumstances which shaped it in youth. We have 
learned that in childhood the bones are quite flexible 
and disposed to bend, instead of breaking, under a 
strain. For this reason, children who begin to walk 
very early become more or less bow-legged. Pupils 
who are in the habit of leaning forw^ard on the desk, 
in school, will certainly, more or less deform their 
bodies. If a boy, in walking, carries his body in a 
lazy, stoop-shouldered position, he will go bent and 
deformed through life. Avoid leaning the body 



16 



ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 



forward in sitting. When lying down, do not 
bolster up the head with high pillows. While stand- 
ing or walking, hold the head erect, throw the shoul- 
ders back, and take in full breaths of air. If these 
positions in lying, sitting, standing or walking are 
carefully kept in youth, all the curvings and efforts 
of the body and limbs which come from ordinary 
labor, will not injure them, and the full-grown figure 
will be straight, graceful and strong. 

OTJTIilNE. 

THE BONES OF THE SKELETON. 



Fratoework of the body. 

208. Eighfcy-seven pairs. Thirty-four singlec 

Shapes: Long, flat, round, irregular. 

Composed of animal and mineral matter. 

United by joints, sutures and cartilages. 

Bound together by ligaments. 

Arranged in four groups: 

Head, Trunk, Upper and Lower Extremities. 



Twenty-two in the head. 

Fifty-four in the trunk. 
WHERE? <i Sixty-four in the upper extremities. 
I Sixty in the lower extremities. 
1^ Eight in the ears. 



^ To give shape to the body. 
To support the softer parts of the body within and 
WHY? •{ around them. 

To protect important organs. 
^ To serve as levers to be moved by the muscles. 



THE SKELETON. 17 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

Be sure that the acid and burning experiments on the com- 
position of bones are performed either by yourself or by the 
pupils. Get a piece of flat bone sawed to show the layers. 
Get a leg joint at the butcher's; remove muscles and tendons, to 
show the ligaments; then sever the bones at the joint to show 
cartilage. Show a fresh piece of long bone containing marroiv, 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

Of what is the skeleton composed? 
To what parts of a house are the bones compared? 
How many bones in the skeleton? 
Do the teeth belong to the skeleton proper? 
How many single bones in the body? 
How many are in pairs? 
What variety of shapes have the bones? 
What two kinds of material in the bones? 
Which material makes the bone flexible? 
What is the effect of the mineral matter? 
How do these materials vary at different ages? 
What wise provision in this arrangement? 
Why are the ends of the long bones more spongy? 
Why are they covered with cartilage? 
In what ways are the bones united? 
Locate a hinge-joint of the body. 
Where is a ball and socket joint found? 
What bones are united by sutures? 
What bones are united by cartilages? 
How are the bones bound to each other? 
Name four uses of the bones. 
Into how many groups are the bones divided? 
What is the skull? 

Point out on the Aid, the frontal bone, — the parietal — tem- 
poral — occipital. 
How many bones form the face? 
What two form the bridge of the nose? 
Where are the malar bones? 



18 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

The upper maxillary? Lower maxillary? 

What is meant by the trunk? 

Where is the spinal column? 

Why is it built so strong? 

How is it made, elastic or springy? 

What benefit in this arrangement? 

How many vertebrae in the back-bone? 

How many of these are in the neck? 

How many have ribs attached to them? 

How many are in the loins? 

What bones make the frame of the chest? 

Are the ribs united directly to the sternum? 

Is the sternum as hard as other bones? 

What benefit in these arrangements? 

How is the lower part of the skeleton of the trunk shaped? 

What is it called? 

What three bones come together at the shoulder? 

What two in the forearm? 

How many in the wrist? 

How many in the middle of the hand? 

In each finger? 

In each thumb? 

Which is the longest bone in the skeleton? 

What two bones in the lower leg? 

How maoy heel bones in each foot? 

Why is the foot arched instead of flat? 



THE MTJSCULAE SYSTEM. 



MTJSCIiES. 

We have studied the framework or skeleton of f he 
body. We have seen from the figure of it in the 
Anatomical Aid, how it resembles the framework of 
a house before it is weather-boarded and shingled^ 
The plate of the body which is now before us pre- 
sents altogether a different view from that which we 
have been studying. We notice that it looks more 
like the full body, more like a house that is enclosed. 
The bones are here quite concealed by another 
division of organs — the muscular system. The 
word system in Physiology means the whole collec- 
tion of parts or organs of the body, which perform 
similar work or which work together for some com- 
mon purpose. We are already acquainted with the 
bony system. AVe will now study the muscular 
system. 

The muscles form the lean flesh of the 

^1 uncles body. The meat which we eat for food 

is chiefly muscle. We are all familiar 

with the dark red color of beef when it is 

(19) 



20 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

raw. You have also undoubtedly noticed that the 
muscle or lean meat of pork is of a paler red, and 
the meat on the breast-bone of a chicken is quite 
white ; so muscle is not always red ; but it is gen- 
erally red, and the plate shows us that the muscles 
of the human body are of a quite red color. 

There are 527 muscles in your body. 
Xumiier and Each one of these is made up of many 
Muscles. strands or string-like fibers. These 

are laid side by side in the muscle, 
sometimes making quite a thick bundle. Each fiber 
of a muscle bundle is, however, separated from the 
rest by a very delicate substance. If you will take 
a piece of cooked meat, when it is cold, you can pull 
the muscles apart into strands, and these strands 
can be separated into many finer fibers or threads of 
muscle. While this is being done, you can observe 
the breaking and crackling of the very thin layer of 
matter which separates the fibers. The muscles 
differ from each other in shape. Some are spread 
out much like a fan. Others are quite circular in 
form, like this one (5) around the eye, or this (15) 
around the mouth. Some are quite long and of 
nearly even thickness. The largest muscle in the 
body is this (60), called the tailor muscle. It is 
nearly a yard long and does the work of crossing 
the legs. 

The ends of the muscles are attached to 
the bones by means of a hard white sub- 
stance or cord, which is called a tendon. These 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 21 

tendons are ve?*y strong. Besides binding the 
muscles very fiimiy at their ends to the bones, they 
are very usef il :n giving a graceful shape to many 
parts o£ the body. For instance, if these (39 and 
■iO) muscles of the forearm, which must have a con- 
nection with the fingers, were all continued as mus- 
cular bundles, through the wrist, hand and finger- 
joints, the hand would have a very clumsy figure. 
But these muscles reach out to the finger-joints by 
means of their tendons, and these tendons are 
neatly bound down, to run snugly along the bones, 
by means of ligaments, like this (45), so that the 
hand is really a very shapely organ. This (63) shows 
the tendon of this (62) muscle of the leg, and here 
(68) is the tendon of this (66) large muscle of the 
thigh. 

The muscles have been very appropriately 
the called "our servants," furnished us with 

" the house in which we live." They are 
indeed very faithful servants. It is their work to 
move, in many ways, the different parts of the body; 
or, as in walking, to move the body as a whole. 
There is no movement of any part of the body which 
is not produced by the action of one or more mus- 
cles. Every step we take, the slightest motion of a 
finger, the movement of the lips in speaking, the 
chest in breathing, or the eye in winking — all 
these movements are produced by the muscles. 
The rapidity with which these muscles work 
is quite astonishing. To be convinced of this, 



22 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

we may observe the movements of the fingers 
of a skillful pianist or a rapid type-writer. To help 
you understand still better how very rapidly the 
muscles can act, you may remember that in say- 
ing the one word muscle, the mouth, tongue and 
voice organs must be put, in succession, into four 
different shapes or positions, all of which is done by 
the proper muscles. We must not get the idea that 
only the bones are moved by the muscles. Many 
other parts of the body are moved by their action. 
For instance, the lips in whistling, the eye -lids in 
winking, the skin in wrinkling the forehead, or the 
heart in its ceaseless beating. When a dog pricks 
up his ears, or a horse drives off the flies by shak- 
ing his skin, it is done by the action of the muscles. 
There is another use which the muscles 

lianguage 

of the serve, which is very interesting. It may 

be called the language of the muscles, 
and it is remarkable how often they speak for us. 
A frown on the face is purely the work of the mus- 
cles; yet everybody understands its meaning. The 
same is true of a smile. You see two men at a dis- 
tance standing face to face and near together, with 
clenched fist and up-raised arm. You do not hear a 
word they say, but the action of their muscles, which 
you see, tells you how they feel. You pass near by 
a vicious horse, as he lays back his ears, or approach 
a dog whose hair on his neck is drawn up stiff and 
straight, you hear no sounds, but you understand 
the warning. It is the silent but expressive lan- 
guage of the muscles. 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM, 23 

« .... Some of the muscles of the body act 

Two Kinds •' 

of MiiHouiar only wheii they are directed to do so by 
^ *^"' the mind or the will These are called 

voluniary muscles. Others act Avithout being con- 
trolled by the will. These are called involuntary 
muscles. The muscles of the arm, for example, are 
voluntary muscles. The muscles which produce the 
action of the heart are involuntary. Some muscles 
may act either with or without the action of our will. 
For instance, the muscles which produce winking 
usually "wait for no thinking." But we may will to 
wink, and wink whenever we please. On the other 
hand, the will usually controls the action of the 
motion of the jaws. But sometimes, as in the case 
of a chill, these muscles produce chattering of the 
teeth rather contrary to the direction of the will. 
How the Motion is produced by the muscles, by 
Muscles the contraction of the fibers. A muscle 
shortens more or less according to the 
degree of motion which it is to produce. The short- 
ening in length is caused by a swelling out of the 
muscles sideways. This swelling or bulging of a 
muscle can easily be perceived while it is contracted 
and pulling or holding the part which it moves. 
Grasp your arm between the elbow and shoulder 
firmly between your thumb and fingers. Now raise 
your forearm toward your shoulder; you feel the 
thickening of the muscle which raises your arm. 
This (34) is the muscle whose action you so plainly 
feel. It is called the biceps muscle of the arm. This 



24 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

name means double-headed, and this muscle is so 
called because it lias two upper tendons or starting 
places. Here (32) is the one, and here (33) is the 
other. The return of the muscle to its usual shape 
and length is called its relaxation. The relaxation 
of this (34) biceps must take place to permit the 
arm to straighten out; but, at the same time, some 
other muscle or muscles must contract to move it 
into the straight position. A muscle which bends a 
part is called a flexor. One which serves to 
straighten a part is called an extensor. 
^ ^ . ^ Most of the muscles of the body are 

Antagonists, . , . 

or Counter paired off in their work. That is, the 

Muscles. ,. p . Ill i • 

motion or a part produced by a certain 

muscle is reversed by the contraction of some other 
muscle. Such muscles are called antagonists, or 
counter muscles. Here again we refer to the chart 
for illustration. To raise the forearm, as we have 
seen, this (34) biceps must contract; but to straighten 
it out again requires the action of this muscle (36), 
the triceps. So the biceps and triceps are antag- 
onists. These muscles (43 and 44) bend the fingers, 
while these (51 and 52) straighten or extend them — 
another illustration of counter muscles. 

The names of the muscles are very 

S^ome Prominent "^ 

Muscles and long and difficult to remember. It 

eir ames. would be unwise and unreasonable 

to ask you now to learn many of them. But by 
studying a few of the more prominent ones you will 
learn something about their uses, and also how their 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM, 25 

names are formed. This (1) muscle, which occu- 
pies a very prominent place, begins on the occipital 
or back bone of the head, and reaches forward to the 
skin of the forehead over the frontal bone. Its con- 
traction raises the eyebrows and wrinkles the forehead. 
It is called the occipito-fronialis. It takes its name 
from the parts which it connects. This (15) curious 
muscle, when it contracts, puckers the lips. Physi- 
oloorists call it orhicularis oris. Orbicularis means 
circular, and oris means of the mouth. So this 
muscle is named from its shape and position. Here 
(51) is a muscle which bears the name extensor 
indicis, which means the straightener of the index 
finger, this being precisely the work which the 
muscle performs. This muscle (22) takes its name 
from its position under the clavicle or collar-bone. 
So it is called the sub-clavian muscle. We see that 
some muscles are named after the parts which they 
connect; some from their shape and position; some 
from the work which they do, and others from their 
location. So the many long and difficult names of 
the muscles which you find on this plate (to which 
the figure seems to be pointing), and which are so 
meaningless to you now, are really very expressive 
and full of meaning, and may, some day, when you 
are more advanced in your studies, become very 
interesting to you. 

The comfort of the body, its grace of 
of the form and the prompt activity of all its 

Muse es. pax-ts depend very largely on the healthy 



26 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

and vigorous condition of all the muscles. To keep 
them all in that condition, each one mast be used 
Avithout being abused. A muscle which is not used 
loses its power of contraction, becomes weak and 
flabby, and finally altogether useless. On the other 
hand, if a muscle is overworked, it loses its power. 
If you were to tie up your arm in a sling, or bind it 
down to your side for a long time, you would lose 
the use of it entirely. If you should swing your arm 
for a long time, the muscles which produce its motion 
would cry out in painful protest against the abuse 
which they suffer ; and were you to disregard their 
protest, they would "strike" and refuse, positively, 
to do the bidding of your will. The effect of the 
vigorous exercise of the muscles without overtaxing 
them, is to make them firm and strong; the stout 
arm of a blacksmith, and the strong limbs of a foot- 
man illustrate this. The difference between the 
robust figure and good health of a sturdy country 
boy and the slender body and feeble strength of his 
young friend in the city, lies mostly in the difference 
in amount of their general muscular exercise. But 
we must be careful not to mistake a bulky body, or 
thickness of the limbs, as a sign of stoutness and 
strength of muscle. It is true, indeed, that as the 
muscles grow stronger they grow thicker, and conse- 
quently increase the size of the limbs and trunk of 
the body. But the effect of the fat of the body is 
often mistaken for an "abundance of muscle." 



THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 27 

OUTLINE. 

THE MUSCLES. 

The lean flesh of the body. 
Color, red. Number, 527. 
Composed of many fibers. 
Shapes : long, fan-shaped, flat and circular. 
Bound to the fcones by tendons. 
What? ^ Voluntary and involuntary. 
Have power of contraction. 
Swell out when they shorten. 
Antagonists produce counter motion. 
Flexors bend, extensors straighten. 
Are kept healthy by exercise. 

Where? \ Found distributed in all parts of the body. 

r To give motion to all parts of the body by the 
l^ contraction and relaxation of their fibers. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

In these lessons, whether you teach them by oral exercises 
or in recitation by the pupils, you can add much interest and 
practical instruction by bringing before your class illustrations 
of the real working of the parts or organs which are being 
studied. This can often be done very conveniently, and will 
contribute much to the pupils' knowledge of the functions or 
use of the organs (physiology), while the Anatomical Aid gives 
them a correct view of the structure (anatomy) of the parts. In 
studying the muscles, especially, such real examples of their 
work are very easily given. Name and point out on the plate 
a certain muscle. Make it serve your will as your pupils look 
on. Then let the class, in concert, join you in the perform- 
ance. Wrinkle the forehead, close the eyes, pucker the mouth, 
swell the cheeks, raise the arm, etc. This will make the 
information which is imparted "stick," because it is stored 
in the mind among the pleasures of memory. 

The " drum-stick " of a chicken — which some pupil may 
like to contribute — will, at this stage, furnish a very good object- 



28 ELEMENTARY PH YSIOLOGY, 

les£OD. Show how the muscles are grouped about the upper 
part and gradually taper down to the bone. Below the muscle, 
lying along the bone, is a tendon. Separate the muscle. If 
the "drum-stick" has become cold, after having been cooked, 
you may hear the crackling of the delicate little sheaths which 
encase the fibers. When you have removed all the muscles, 
you have left two representatives of the bony system — the 
larger bone, the tibia, and the slender bone by its side, the 
fibula, corresponding, in position, to the same bones in the 
human body. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

What part of the body do the muscles form? 

What is the usual color of the muscies? 

How many muscles are in the body ? 

What can you tell of the structure of a muscle? 

How do muscles differ in shape? 

What is the shape of the muscle which closes the eye? 

What and where is the longest muscle of the body? 

What is the use of the tendons? 

Can you explain how the tendons assist in giving a graceful 

shape to the body? 
What is the use of the muscles? 

What parts, bes'des the bones, are moved by the muscles? 
Can you give an illustration of the language of the muscles? 
What is meant by a voluntary muscle? 
What is an involuntary muscle? 
What is meant by the contraction of a muscle? 
What by relaxation? 

What is the difference between a flexor and extensor muscle? 
What are antagonists or counter muscles? 
How is a muscle affected by being unused? 
What is the result of too severe exercise? 
Is a bulky body always a strong body? 
What is likely to make the body bulky ? 



THE NEEYOUS SYSTEM. 



So far as we have now studied the body we have its 
framework and the muscles which are to give motion 
to its various parts. AVe have learned how the mus- 
cles act, and now comes the question: What causes 
them to act as they do? We have learned of the 
obedience of the voluntary muscles to the will. But 
how does the mind or will direct theai tvhen, how 
much, and how long to act? For tlie purpose of 
enabling the mind to control the action of the mus- 
cles, a very interesting system of organs is provided 
in the body, namely, the nervous su^iem. This plate 
gives us an excellent view of it. 

The brain is, in many respects, the most 

The Brain. ^ i ' 

important organ of the body. It occu- 
pies the loftiest chamber of the body house. [Eaise 
ihe face section and refer to the brain on plate.) 
Here the mind — the invisible tenant or occupant of 
the body — seems to form its purposes and send out 
its orders to its hundreds of servants stationed at as 
many points, between top and toe. Here, also, it 
receives its messages of intelligence from the body 

and from the outside world. These messages may 

(29) 



30 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

bring it pleasure or pain; and they largely influence 
its decisions, its orders and its temper. 

The brain is an exceedine^ly soft and 

J^tructiire. . . 

delicate organ. I£ it were not enclosed 
in a triple sac and nicely fitted into its bony cham- 
ber it would fall apart from its own weight. It is 
composed of two kinds of substance, one of which is 
gray in color and the other ichite. The outer por- 
tion of the brain is composed of the gray matter. 
The white matter occupies the inside portion. 

The brain is surrounded by three coats 
Protection ^j, membranes. The one lyins: next to 

to tlie Brain. ^ , . " 

it is a delicate covering containing 
vessels which supply the brain with blood. This 
membrane takes its name from its purpose of careful 
protection ; so it is called the -pia maier — which 
means a fender mother. It lies very close to the 
surface, stretching over the little hills and dipping 
down into the little valleys, with which the outside 
of the brain is covered. Next to the pia mater lies 
a membrane so delicate that it was named after a 
spider's web — arachnoid. This membrane performs 
its work of protection by collecting from the blood a 
watery fluid to moisten the surface of the brain and 
prevent any possible friction. The outer coat is quite 
tough and substantial: so it is called the dura mater^ 
or hard mother. It lies close to the inside surface 
of the skull bones. Now we can see how the brain 
is protected, for instance, against a blow on the head. 
The effectof such a blow would be diminished, first, by 



THE NERVOUS SYSTE3L 31 

the hair, then by the skin and muscles overlying the 
skull, then by the bone, next by the hard coat, then 
by the water coat, and finally by the soft coat — mak- 
ing no less than a half-dozen successive defenses 
against harm to the castle of the mind. 

The brain is divided into two parts, one 
mTisions of ^f ^^j^-^i^ -g ^^^Yi larger than the other. 

the Brain. ^ 

These parts are shown here, in this 
section which represents the head as divided from 
top to bottom, close behind the ears. We will now 
refer to the manikin of the head, where we will get 
a very clear view of the size and position of these 
brain parts. [Fourth section of the head,) This 
(74) large upper brain is called the cerebrum. It 
fills the whole front and upper part of the brain-box. 
The small brain (75) is called the cerebellum. 
Notice that it lies behind and below the large divi- 
sion of the brain. When this small brain is cut 
through, its inner structure has this tree-like appear- 
ance [shown on plate), called the arbor vitce. 

Both the cerebrum and cerebellum 

Hemispheres. 

are divided into two parts, called the 
right and left hemispheres. The lower parts of the 
two hemispheres are united by several small mys- 
terious-looking organs, whose particular use has 
been a puzzle even to many wise heads, but which 
certainly have some special part to perform in the 
wonderful control of the mind over the body. The 
last section of the head {turn to it), which repre- 
sents it as cut through from front to back, in the 



32 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

middle, shows us the right hemisphere of both the 
larger and the smaller brain. The red vessels, in the 
figure, are blood-vessels which bring large quantities 
of the purest blood in the body to the brain, for a 
purpose of which we shall learn hereafter. 

From many observations and experi- 
thrcerebrnm. ^^^^^ which have been made by 
physiologists, it has been learned 
that the large brain is the thinking organ of the 
mind. It is here that impressions received from 
the outside world are translated into thought and 
feeling. Here the purposes of the will are formed, 
and from here all orders for the action of the volun- 
tary muscles are issued. 

The work of the small brain seems to 
Cerebellum. ^^ ^^ regulate the muscular movements 
which are directed to be made by the 
large brain. It has been discovered that when the 
cerebellum is injured, a person can not balance 
the body, as is required even in standing and much 
more in walking. A bird whose small brain is 
seriously injured. or removed, can move its wings 
and its legs, but it can neither fly nor walk. 

The nervous matter of the brain is con- 
Cord. ^*^^ tinned down through the back, passing 

through openings in the bones of the 
spinal column. This is called the spinal cord. Here 
{131^ last section of the head) is where the spinal 
cord begins. This (124) upper part of the cord 
[medulla oblongata) is a very important part of the 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 33 

nervous system, for the reason that it seems to have 
control of some of the most vital operations of the 
body. When it is injured, the breathing muscles 
fail to act, which, of course, means instant death. 
Here (150) we see the spinal cord continued down- 
ward. Now we will turn again to the nervous plate of 
the Aid, where the whole of this great nervous 
cord is shown with its numerous branches of nerves. 
The nerves are composed of the same 
substance as the brain. They are sil- 
very threads which branch out from the brain and 
spinal cord and are distributed to all parts of the 
body. Twelve pairs pass out through openings of 
the cranium. These are called cranial nerves. 
Thirty-one pairs pass out from the spinal cord 
through openings of the back-bone, as shown on the 
plate. These are called spinal nerves. The cranial 
nerves go to the eye, ear, nose, tongue and other 
important organs. The spinal nerves go to the 
arms, trunk and legs. 

Besides the nerves which branch out from the 
brain and spinal cord, there is, on each side of the 
back-bone, a chain of nerve centers — little bits of 
brains, as it were — running down through the body. 
From these small nerve knots, delicate nerves run out, 
some to the heart, lungs and stomach, and others to 
the blood-vessels and to the cranial and spinal 
nerves. So all the important organs of the body are, 
in this way, connected with each other and with the 
brain. This figure (^The Sympathetic System) shows, 



34 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

beautifully, this wonderful nervous connection. The 
interesting object of this arrangement — which is 
called the sympathetic nervous system — we shall 
soon learn. 

There are three kinds of nervous action. 
Act^m!^ We will first consider the relation between 

mind, brain and nerve. The nervous 
system is very much like a telegraph system. The 
mind has been called the operator, the brain and 
spinal cord the sending or receiving offices or 
instruments, and the nerves the wires or lines 
running to all parts of the body. The comparison 
is very apt, indeed. One set of nerves runs from 
the brain or spinal cord to the muscles, so that every 
muscular fiber is in direct communication with head- 
quarters. Now, wherever a muscle is to act, every 
fiber of it, in some mysterious way, gets a message 
over its nerve line, from the nervous capital, 
directing it precisely how much to contract or relax. 
For example, you make up your mind to close your 
eyes. The order is sent out over the nerve lines 
which go to the fibers of the circular muscle which 
we have found to lie around the eye, and promptly 
the eyelids close. The nerves which carry messages 
to the muscles are called nerves of motion. Another 
set of nerves are called nerves of feeling. They 
carry impressions from the body to the brain. These 
nerves are distributed so thickly near the surface of 
the body, in the skin, that it would be almost impos- 
sible to find a point on the body where the prick of 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, 35 

a pin would not be feit. If you touch your body on 
its skin surface anywhere, even with the fine point 
of a needle, you are sure to disturb one or more of 
the nerves of feeling. Quicker than thought they 
report the impression, according to the degree of its 
severity, to the brain, which, if the situation at the 
surface demands it, will promptly return an order, 
over the nerves of motion, to the muscles of the 
endangered part, to do their best to get it out of the 
way of harm. For instance, a mosquito may alight 
on your forehead so lightly as to make no 
impression on your nerves of feeling, and, con- 
sequently, you are not aware of it. But now he 
punctures the skin and touches a nerve with his 
wonderful little stiletto. The news of his attack has 
been received by the brain, and an order sent back 
for defense and protection. Quicker than thought 
your hand has come up and routed or crushed the 
little assassin. 

But the impressions which the nerves of feeling 
carry to the brain and mind are not all alarming or 
painful. Many of them are impressions of comfort 
or pleasure. A gentle breeze fans your body on a 
hot summer day. Hundreds of nerves are telling 
it to the mind, which enjoys it as a pleasure. Light 
impresses the nerve of sight, and beautiful views 
pf form and color are spread before the mind. 
Sound excites the nerve of hearing and the charms 
of music are enjoyed. Invisible particles from a 
rose come in contact with the nerve of smell and we 
are delighted with the fragrance of the flower. 



36 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

If all the muscles were voluntary muscles, 
xervous that is, if no movement of the organs of 
c ion. ^j^^ body could be made without a special 
order from the mind, the continuance and enjoyment 
of life would be impossible. Every breath, every 
heart'beat, and many other operations of organs 
which can scarcely be dispensed with for even a few 
moments, would need to be constantly thought of 
and directed. Fortunately, the mind, and even the 
brain, is relieved from the ordinary control of the 
operations of organs upon whose regular and con- 
stant action our life depends. So the heart goes on 
beating, the lungs continue breathing and the stom- 
ach keeps on working, while the mind rests and the 
brain sleeps. Let us see how this is done. 

The spinal cord may be regarded as a continua- 
tion of the brain. It is composed of the same two 
kinds of matter — white and grayo We may also look 
upon the spinal cord as a depidy brain. A deputy 
is appointed as a substitute for another, and empow- 
ered to act for him. An officer may have more duties 
to perform than he can personally attend to. So an 
assistant is given him, who is entrusted with certain 
lines of work for which he is held responsible. When 
serious questions or difficulties arise in the assist- 
ant's department of work, he appeals for special 
advice to the chief officer. So in the body, while the 
brain executes the orders of the mind, and controls 
the voluntary operations and movements of the body, 
the spinal cord is entrusted with the control of the 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 37 

involuntary muscles which perform the work of th^ 
heart, lungs, stomach and other vital organs, except 
in cases of emergency. For example, Avhen food 
c(5mes into the stomach, certain movements of the 
walls of that organ are necessary. So the food makes 
an impression on the nerves which report its pres- 
ence, not to the brain or to the mind, as a sensation, 
but to the origin center of those nerves, in the spinal 
cord. Here the cord exercises its authority and 
returns (reflects) an order over motor nerves to the 
muscles of the stomach to perform the needed 
service. 

In the same way, the presence of impure air or 
the absence of air in the lungs causes impressions 
which are carried to the cord, which returns orders 
for the action of the breathing-out or breathing-in 
muscles, as the case may be. All these performances 
go on steadily, whether we are awake or asleep. 
But when an emergency arises, as, for instance, if 
the muscles of the chest are strongly resisted in their 
efforts to expand it, by outside compression, the 
news of the trouble is carried beyond the nerve cen- 
ters of the cord up to the brain, where the mind 
quickly grasps the situation and promptly issues 
orders for the best possible measures of relief. A 
familiar illustration of reflex action is found in the 
flapping of a fowd whose head has been cut off. Its 
muscles which produce its violent motions are not in 
connection with the brain, and can not be controlled 
by ii Each fall to the ground produces an impres- 



38 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

#sion which starts from the cord a message for the 

repetition of these muscular movements. Even 

when it seems to have settled down quietly, if you 

touch its body the movements will be renewed. * 

^^ ^^ ^Ve have seen how the sympathetic 

Sympathetic . 

xervous nerves connect important organs with 

^ ^^^' each other and each with the brain. So 

if one organ suffers, the others suffer more or less 
with it. When the stomach is distressed, the head 
aches. When the heart's action is excited, the 
stomach is affected. When the brain is impressed 
with the mind's sense of shame or modesty, the little 
blood-vessels in the skin of the cheeks swell out and 
are more than usually filled with blood, and we call 
this delicate expression of their sympathy, blushing. 
H iti f ^^^ would naturally suppose that organs 
the i^evvous SO delicately constructed, and yet so 
ys em. prominent in the operations of the body 

as those of tlie nervous system, would need the most 
proper care to prevent their derangement or injury. 
And so it is. The brain needs especial care. It 
needs rest at proper intervals ; not only from severe 
application, but the complete rest of sleep. An 
overworked brain is a diseased brain. On the other 
hand, the brain must have a proper amount of exer- 
cise to keep it in vigor. Besides healthy and varied 
exercise, the brain needs pure blood regularly and in 
proper quantities. Too much or too little blood will 
paralyze it. Hence its dependence on the proper 
action of the hlood'Circulating system. Impure 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 39 

blood will weaken its action. Hence its dependence 
on the h\ood-2^uriffjing system. 

Severe excitement of the mind or long continued 
anxiety cripple the work of the brain, and finally 
result in insanity. A cheerful state of the mind is 
favorable to healthy nerves and long life. Conse- 
quently, all proper enjoyments, as the delights of 
music, pleasant changes of scenery, varied means of 
recreation and social pleasures, are like tonics to the 
nervous system first, and through it to the whole body. 

There is no system of the body that is more 
severely outraged by the habit of drink and the use 
of narcotics than the nervous system. But this sub- 
ject is so very important that it will be fully explained 
in a special chapter, after we are still better 
acquainted with the structure of the body. 

OXJTIilNE. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

'' Consists of brain, spinal cord and nerves. 
Very soft and delicate in structure. 
Composed of white and gray matter. 
The large brain called the cerebrum. 
The smaller brain the cerebellum. 
Right and left halves of brain — called hemispheres. 
Nerves of two kinds, nerves of sensation or im- 
pression and nerves of motion. 

Brain enclosed in cranium. 

Spinal cord extends from base of brain through 

the spinal canal of back- bone. 
Nerves branch out from the brain, spinal cord and 

the sympathetic nerve knots, and are distributed 

to all parts of the body. 



What? ^ 



Where? i 



Why? 



40 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

^ To serve the mind in directing the voluntary 
movements of the body. 

To control, by reflex action, the invohmtary mus- 
cles. 

To bring to the mind, from the body and from the 
outside vrorld, impressions producing the sensa- 
tions or feeling of touch, taste, light, sound, 
smell, pain or pleasure. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are the organs of the nervous system? 

What position in the body does the brain occupy? 

Whose special instrument does the brain seem to be? 

What can you say of the brain's structure? 

What difference Iq the color of its substance? 

Describe how the brain is protected. 

What is the cerebrum? 

What is the cerebellum? 

What is the arbor vitas? 

What is meant by the hemispheres of the brain? 

What can you tell of the work of the cerebrum? 

What seems to be the use of the cerebellum? 

Where is the spinal cord? 

What is its upper part called? 

What makes this part so very important? 

What are the nerves? 

From where do they start? 

Where do they go? 

How many pairs pass out from the skull? 

What are these nerves called? 

How many pairs branch off from the spinal cord? 

What are these called? 

Where do the cranial nerves chiefly go? 

To what part are the spinal nerves chiefly sent? 

What can you tell of the sympathetic nerves? 

To what have we compared the nervous system? 

Tell what you can of the comparison. 

Do all the nerves perform the same kind of work? 

Explain what is meant by the nerves of motion. 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 41 

What is meaut by the uerves of feeling? 

Does the mind attend to all the movements of the body? 

If not, will you explain your answer? 

What kind of muscles are controlled by the nervous system 

independently of the mind? 
What is such nervons action called? 
Can you give an example of reflex action? 
What is sympathetic nervous action? 
Can you give an example of it? 
Why does the nervous system need special care? 
What kind of exercise is needed by the brain? 
By what habits are these organs especially injured? 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 



All tlie sensory nerves except four. 
Merves of « . . ' 

Common Sen- ^'^'^ nerves or common sensation. 

sation. They are distributed everywhere 

throughout the body. They need no special organs 
to enable them to receive impressions. Near the 
surface of the body or in the skin, they end in little 
folds or loops called papillce. All the nerves of the 
sense of touch are nerves of common sensation. 

There are four nerves of special sensa- 
Xerves of *- 

Special Sen- tion. These are the nerves of sight, 
sation. hearing, smell and taste. Each of these 

nerves has a special organ Avithout which no impres- 
sion can be received to be carried to the brain. 
These organs are very delicate and w^onderful struc- 
tures. They are really special instruments of the 
nervous system. 



42 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

THE EYE. 

The optic nerve, or nerve of sight, is one of the 
nerves of special sensation. Starting from the 
brain, it passes to the eye to be distributed over the 
back, inner surface of the eyeball. This nerve is 
impressible only by light. But without the eye, the 
light would not impress it. The eye is an instru- 
ment to gather the light which is reflected to it from 
objects, and to bring.it to bear on the optic nerve in 
such a way that an impression is made and carried 
to the brain, where the mind receives the impression 
as a picture of the object from which the light came. 
How all this is done, is very mysterious. But the 
organs which are concerned in the process can be 
easily examined and studied. 

We observe, first, that the eye is lodged 
orti^e^ye. ^^ ^ ^^^P Socket of the bones of the 
head. Besides this feature of protec- 
tion, there is placed behind and around the eye, 
quite a layer of fat, so that, even if the eye is struck, 
the force of the stroke is very much lessened by 
this fatty cushion. In front, it is guarded by the 
eyelids, eyebrows and eyelashes. The eyelids serve 
as a curtain. The eyebrows prevent the perspira- 
tion from running down from the forehead upon the 
lids. The eyelashes prevent dust from entering 
between the eyelids. 

(Manikin of the Eye.) 

Turning aside this outer section which 

ratusf^*****" represents the natural open eye, we see 

a gland lying in the outer corner above 



THE SPECIAL SENSES, 43 

the eye. This is called the lachrymal or tear 
gland. It secretes from the blood a watery fluid 
which it pours out upon the eyeball. By the act of 
winkiug, the eyeball is entirely bathed by this fluid, 
which, after it has flowed over the eye, collects in a 
little lake at the inner angle, from whence it is 
drained by two little channels (2) into the tear duct 
(1) which communicates with the nose. Shedding 
tears is simply an overflow of this eye-bathing fluid, 
when it is secreted in unusual quantity. At such 
times, the little channels cannot carry it away suf- 
ficiently rapid; so it flows over upon the cheeks. 
This unusual activity of the tear-gland may be 
produced by certain states of the mind, as sorrow or 
great joy; or by certain diseased conditions of the 
parts about the eye, as inflammation or a severe cold. 
In both the upper and lower eyelids 
numerous little glands are found (4) 
which secrete a kind of oil. From these little 
glands, very small ducts lead to the edges of the 
eyelids, where the oily matter is discharged through 
the little openings shown on the section (3). This 
oiling of the edges of the eyelids is very important. 
In the first place, the edges are thus prevented from 
sticking together. Further, were it not for this pro- 
vision, the eye-bathing fluid would flow over the 
margin of the eyelids upon the cheeks. But since 
a watery liquid does not easily flow over an oily 
surface, such an overflow is prevented by the oiled 
edges, except when there is a flood of tears. 



44: ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

„ On the second eye-section a number of 

lEye Muscles. , *' 

muscles which move the eyelids are 
shown. On the third section four of the six muscles 
which move the eyeball are represented (9, 10, 11, 
12). These are called the straight muscles of the 
eye, because each of them draws or rolls the eye in 
the direction of its contraction — upward, downward, 
inward or outward. There are also two other eye- 
rolling muscles. They are called the oblique mus- 
cles of the eye, and give it its peculiar rolling 
motions. 

The ^Vhite ^^"^^ eyeball has three coats. The outer 
Coat of the coat, or white of the eye, is called the 

sclerotic coat (15), It is a strong, 
tough membrane which forms quite a substantial 
case into which the cornea (14) is set in front, like 
the glass or crystal of a watch. The sclerotic coat 
is not sensitive; that is, it has no nerves of feeling. 
But it is covered, in front, with a very delicate mem- 
brane which contains very fine blood vessels (13) 
and nerves. When these little vessels become swoll- 
en with an unusual amount of blood, the eye is said 
to be " blood-shot," and when a cinder or dust grain 
lodges on the eye and makes an impression on the 
delicate nerves of this fine protecting veil, the sen- 
sation is very painful. No light passes through the 
sclerotic coat; but the cornea — the window of the 
eye — is very transparent. 

Next to the tous^h, outside white coat 

The Black . . 

Coat oi the lies the choroid (fourth section^ 18). This 
^^^' is a soft black membrane. It prevents 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 45 

the reflection of strong light from the inner surface 
of the eyeball, and thus serves an important part in 
making the sight sharp and clear. The front part 
of the choroid coat is arranged like a circular cur- 
tain. This is called the iris (20). This is what gives 
the eye its so-called color. The difference between a 
black eye and a blue eye is, that the cells of the iris of 
the one have a black coloring matter in them, while the 
cells of the iris of the other contain blue coloring 
matter. In the center of the iris is a circular openiug 
called the pupil (21), which you can see by looking di- 
rectly into the eye of another person who stands close 
before you. Through this little circular opening, 
surrounded by the curtains of the iris, the light must 
pass on its way to the back inner part of the eyeball. 
The amount of light which passes through the pupil is 
regulated by an interesting action of the iris. When 
the light is strong, the little muscles which are 
threaded through the iris-curtain in two sets (a, b), 
produce the effect of making the pupil smaller, so 
as to pass less light. When we go from a light 
place into the dark, these same muscles bring about 
an opposite effect, that is, the pupil is made larger, 
so as to admit more rays. This adjustment of the 
curtain of the eye is not instantly done. It requires 
some time. This you can easily observe; for in 
going from the dark into a very light room, you can 
not see well until the change in the size of the pupil 
of your eye has been made. So, also, when going from 
a bright room into a dark place, at first it seems to 



46 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

be ''pitch dark;" but, by and by, when your eye is 
adjusted to the change, you will be surprised to find 
that it is not so dark after all. 

{Sixth Eye Section.) 

The third or inner coat of the eye is the 
^^^^^^^^^^^ retina (27). This lies only over the 
back inner part of the eye-ball. It is 
really the end of the optic nerve, or nerve of sight, 
spread out to receive the impression of the light in 
the eye. The retina is an exceedingly delicate ner- 
vous screen on which the action of the different parts 
of the eye makes a picture of the object we look at. 
How this picture is carried by the nerve to the brain, 
and there grasped or perceived by the mind, we do 
not understand. 

The eye section last referred to shows also how 
numerous blood-vessels are distributed over the 
inner part of the eye. These enter the eyeball from 
behind with the optic nerve as shown at (25), This 
place where these blood-vessels and nerve enter is 
called the ''blind spot," because the light rays which 
fall there make no impression on the nerve. The 
most sensitive place on the retina is at a point at a 
little distance from the " blind spot." This is called 
the "yellow spot" (24). When the eye is perfectly 
adjusted to perceive an object, the image will fall on 
the retina at or near this spot. 

The seventh section gives us another view of the 
dark choroid coat (28) as it lies behind the retina 



THE SPECIAL SENSES, 47 

(27), and also the opening through the choroid (29) 
through which the optic nerve enters. The last sec- 
tion shows veins and arteries (24, 25) distributed 
through the dark coat. A portion of the choroid is 
represented as being removed to show a small part 
of the sclerotic coat behind and outside of it, and also 
the entrance of the optic nerve, with its accompany- 
ing blood-vessels (23) through the outer white coat. 

Between the cornea and the iris, in the 
of^hf Ey^'^ front part of the eye, is a watery fluid 

called the aqueous humor [see 18, sec- 
tional figure of eye, fifth chart). Back of the iris 
lies the crystalline lens (23). This is a beautiful 
gem-like little body, as clear as a crystal. Back of 
the lens, and between it and the retina, the eyeball 
is filled with another clear jelly-like substance called 
the vitreous humor (25). The effect of these three 
humors which are contained in the eye, and espe- 
cially the effect of the crystalline lens, is to produce 
the image of things on the retina, as has already 
been mentioned. 

THE EAB. 

The nerve of special sensation which 
The wery© goes from the brain to the ear is called 

of Hearing. ^ 

the auditory nerve. As the nerve of 
sight is sensitive only to light, this is sensitive only 
to sound. The ear is an instrument to collect sounds 
and bring them to bear on the auditory nerve in 



48 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

such a way that an impression is made and carried 
to the brain to be recognized by the mind. 

The ear is divided into the ouier, middle 
Outer Ear. and inner ear. Tne outer ear has a 

more or less cartilaginous frame. This 
allows motion, and, at the same time, keeps it in 
shape and position. It has also a few small muscles. 
But in the human ear these are nearly altogether 
useless, since men do not move or flop their ears. 
In animals which move their ears in various ways, 
these muscles are quite well developed. 

( Ear Figure^ Fifth Chart, ) 

From the outer ear (1) a tube, a little 
The .Middle q^^^, ^^ jj^^l^ long, called the auditory 

canal (2), leads in to tiie middle ear, 
where it is closed by a membrane called the mem- 
brana tympani, which means the membrane of the 
tympanum or drum (3). The middle ear is often 
called the "ear-drum," and the membrane just men- 
tioned may be called the ''drum-head," for it does, 
indeed, act very much like the head of a drum. 
Between this membrane of the drum and its inner, 
opposite side or end, there is stretched a very curious 
little suspension bridge of four small bones. The 
first of these is attached to the drum-head, and from 
its shape like a hammer is called the malleus (4). 
The next is called the incus, because it is shaped 
like an anvil (7). The third is a very small pebble 
of a bone called the orbicular or round bone (10). It 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 49 

is followed by the stapes or stirrup bone (12), the 
last span in the little bridge. This rests against a 
small window-like membrane which is stretched over 
an opening in the inner side of the drum. At the 
bottom of the ear-drum or middle ear is an opening 
into a tube which leads from the ear to the throat. 
This is called the Eustachian tube. Its object is to 
supply the ear-drum with air, for without air inside 
to balance the pressure of the air on the outside 
of the drum-head, the action of the latter would be 
very imperfect and our hearing, in consequence, very 
dull. We frequently experience the truth of this 
statement; for whenever the Eustachian tube be- 
comes clogged, as in the case of a very bad cold, 
our hearing is very much impaired. 

The inner ear is carefully hidden in a 
The Inner hoUow place in the solid bone. In that 

part of it which lies next to the mid- 
dle ear, is a little hall-way, or vestibule, about as 
large as a grain of wheat. This leads, on one side, 
into the arched or semi-circular hall-wajs which are 
called the semi-circular canals (13, 14, 15). On 
the other side the vestibule opens into the cochlea 
(16, 17), which is shaped like a snail shell or a tiny 
winding stair. Here the auditory nerve, or nerve 
of hearing, takes up the impression of a sound and 
transmits it to the brain. 

AIL sounds are produced by the vibra- 

uear. tions of bodies. To make this plainer, 

when a bell is struck its particles are 



50 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

thrown into a violent trembling. By these trem- 
blings or vibrations of the material of the bell the 
air is thrown into a wave-like motion all around it. 
When these trembling air waves reach the ear, the 
sensation of sound is produced and we say we hear 
the bell. When a person speaks to us the voice 
chords in his throat are set into rapid vibration. 
These vibrations produce waves of sound in the air; 
the air carries these waves to the ear, where, passing 
in through the auditory canal they tremblingly beat 
upon the drum-head; this carries the sounds to the 
bridge of little bones. Having passed over these, 
it enters the vestibule, then vibrates into the semi- 
circular canals and rebounds into the cochlea, where, 
as already stated, it is taken up by the nerve and 
carried to the brain where the mind interprets it as 
the voice and the language of the speaker. 

' THE SENSE OF SMELL. 

The organ of smell is the nose and its cavities. 
The nerve of smell is called the olfactory nerve. 
This nerve is spread out in many branches over the 
delicate mucous membrane which lines the inside of 
the nose. To make the surface on which the nerve 
of smell is distributed as large as possible, there is 
set into the nostrils, against the outer walls, a pair 
of scroll-like bones. These are the turbinated bones 
of the face. Over their winding surfaces, covered 
with the mucous lining, the nerve of smell is spread. 
The two small nasal bones unite the nose to the 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 51 

skull and keep it in shape. The lower part of the 
nose is shaped by a frame of cartilage, the advan- 
tage of which over a nose-frame of solid bone you 
can readily see. 

Thins^s which have an odor, or smell, 
How We ^ . , p 1 

Perceive give out little particles of matter, alto- 

odors. gether invisible. As these float in the 

air, they are drawn into the breathing passages of 
the nose and mouth at every breath. Of course 
those which pass with the air into the mouth can 
make no impression of smell, for there are no nerves 
there which are affected by odors. But those which 
pass into the nostrils strike upon the olfactory nerve 
branches which, as we have seen, have their special 
location there. The mind, receiving these impres- 
sions, recognizes the odor, which may be feeble or 
strong, agreeable or very unpleasant. 

The sense of smell affords us protection in two 
important w^ays. Its organ, the nose, is set at the 
very gates of entrance of the air we breathe and the 
food we eat. So when the air is filled with putrid 
or offensive invisible matter, which, of course, would 
make it unfit to breathe, we are cautioned by the 
sense of smell, and instinctively turn aw^ay and seek 
a purer air to breathe. Like-wise, we are often 
warned, just in time, against putting into the mouth, 
as food, substances wdiose odor betrays their unfit- 
ness to be eaten. Fortunately it is so provided in 
nature that poisonous and other harmful substances 



B2 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

have generally a strong and peculiar smell, although 
this is by no means always the case. 

THE SENSE OF TASTE. 

The special nerves of taste have their 
The Tongue, loop-like endings chiefly in the tongue, 

which is, consequently, usually spoken 
of as the organ of taste. But these papillae, or end 
expansions of the nerve of taste are also distributed 
over the walls of the back part of the mouth. On 
account of the numerous little folds of nerve endings 
on the tongue, this organ has quite a A^elvety appear- 
ance. Besides serving as the chief organ of the 
sense of taste, the tongue also aids in the chewing 
of the food and in producing the sounds of speech. 

When substances which have a taste come 

How IVe . 1 1 Ml 

Perceive in Contact with the papulae or nerve loops 

Taste. ^£ ^-^Q tongue, the impression is at once 

carried to the brain and mind. In order tliat 
such an impression can be made the substance- 
to be tasted must be in a dissolved state. 
No dry or solid substance can be tasted. So 
the mouth is kept moist, and, as we shall learn 
later, during the process of eating, a large quantity 
of saliva is thrown into the mouth. This dis- 
solves at least a portion of the food or substance 
which is in the mouth, so that its taste is well per- 
ceived. When the mouth is dry from disease, or 
from great thirst, food has but little taste and is 
very unpalatable. So when the nerves of the tongue 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 



53 



are covered with a strange coat, as in disease, our 
food does not taste natural. 



WHAT ■ 



i 



WHY? 



OUTLINE. 

ORGANS OF THE SPECIAL SENSES. 

f Eye— the or^an of sight. 
Ear — the organ of heariDg. 



WHEEE? 



Nose— the organ of smell. 
1^ Tongue — the organ of taste, 
f Eye — under arch of frontal bone. 
" Ear — in hollow of temporal bone. 
I Nose — at entrance of air and food passages. 
(^ Tongue— lies on the floor of the mouth. 
Eye — to collect rays of light from objects and pro- 
duce a picture or image of such objects on the 
expansion of the nerve of sight. 
Ear — to collect sound waves and convey them to 

the nerve of hearing. 
Nose — to bring odorous matter in contact with the 

nerve of smell. 
Tongue— to bring substances having taste in con- 
tact with the nerve of taste. 



QUESTIONS. 

Where are the nerves of common sensation distributed ? 

How many nerves of special sensation are there ? 

Can these nerves receive impressions directly ? 

What is the special instrument of the nerve of sight*? 

What is the proper name of the nerve of sight ? 

By what only is it impressible ? 

What is the use of the eye ? 

How is the eye protected by its position ? 

What other means of protection are furnished it ? 

What is the use of the lachrymal or tear gland ? 

Where is this gland situated ? 

After bathing the eye, how is that fluid drained away ? 

What is meant by "shedding tears" ? 

What conditions of mind and body may cause this 



54 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

How many coats has the eyeball ? 

What is the nature of the outer coat ? 

What is the cornea ? 

Is the white coat of the eye sensitive ? 

How do you account for the pain felt when a cinder lodges 

on the eye ? 
What is meant by the eye being ^' bloodshot " ? 
Does light enter the eye through the white coat ? 
Through what does it enter ? 
What is the color of the middle or choroid coat ? 
What purpose does it serve in the eyeball ? 
Where and what is the iris ? 
What gives the eye its color ? 
What is the pupil ? 

How is the pupil regulated to admit more or less light ? 
Where and what is the retina ? 

What is formed by the eye on the screen of the retina ? 
What humor lies between the cornea and iris ? 
Where and what is the crystalline lens ? 
What humor occupies the back part of the eye ? 
Which of these parts is most effective in collecting the light 

on the retina ? 



What is the nerve of hearing called ? 
By what only is it impressible ? 
What is the work of the ear ? 
Into what parts is the ear divided ? 
What tube leads from the outer ear to the " drum " ? 
Describe the ear drum. 
What is the use of the Eustachian tube ? 
What are the parts of the inner ear ? 
By what are all sounds produced ? 

Describe the course of sound-waves from a sounding body 
through the ear to the nerve of hearing. 



What is the organ of the sense of smell ? 

What is the name of the nerve of smell ? 

To what is this nerve sensitive ? 

Against what does the nerve of smell afford us protection. 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM, 55 

Where are the extremities of the nerve of taste located ? 

What gives the tongue its velvety appearance ? 

Why are dry or solid substances tasteless ? 

What provision is made to make food more perceptible to 

the taste ? 
Why does food have no taste to us when we are sick ? 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 



Body- 
Building, 



The building of the body, that is, its 
growth to full stature, and to the com- 
plete development of all its parts — 
bones, muscles, and internal organs — continues 
during the first twenty or twenty-five years of life. 
As in the building of a house, there must be brought 
to every part of the rising structure, the precise kind 
of material then and there needed, so in the building 
of the body, there must be delivered at the proper 
times, and in proper places, all the various kinds of 
material needed for the perfect development of the 
physical structure of the body according to the beau- 
tiful design and the wise plan of its Divine Archi- 
tect. 

As the building of a house requires many kinds 
of things, such as wood, stone, iron, glass, lime, sand 
and putty, so the structure of the body calls for ma- 
terial suitable for bone, muscle, nerve, hair, nails, 
and so on. Not only must such body-building ma- 



56 ELEMENT A R Y PHYSIOLOG Y. 

terial be supplied iii proper kind and quantity, but 
it must be furnished with the utmost promptness and 
regularity. It is an interesting fact that while Na- 
ture will not allow herself to be hurried in the Avork 
of rearing a human body, but, instead, carries on the 
process deliberately through a score or more of years, 
she will, on the other hand, be unable to do her work 
well, and at the end of twenty or twenty-five years, 
present one of her master-pieces, in the form of a per- 
fectly developed human frame, if she is hindered in her 
work from a lack of proper and sufficient building 
material. The result of body growth under such 
circumstances is general weakness, deficiency in size 
and deformity of structure. On the other hand, if 
during the "growing years" of life, there is a steady 
supply of building material furnished throughout 
the body, and Nature is permitted to lay up such 
material in proper kind and proper quantity in its 
appropriate places, without hindrance or interrup- 
tion, the result will be a human form, measuring up 
to the full strength and stature of perfect physical 
manhood and womanhood. 

Further, besides the material which the 
epair. body needs for its growth, it is con- 

stantly exposed to wear and tear, and, consequently, 
it must be supplied continually with material for 
repair. It is impossible altogether to avoid the 
wearing out of parts of the body. Some of the mus- 
cles, like those of the heart, for example, are on con- 
stant duty. Every contraction of a muscle destroys 



THg; CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 57 

a part of its fiber. The nervous system is also con- 
stantly suffering wear. The slightest effort of 
body or mind produces damage which must be made 
good to maintain our strength. The simplest thought 
which occupies the mind lays a tax on the structure 
of the brain. Either a wink or a whisper destroys 
muscular fibers. If even these gentle movements 
are wearing, how great must be the destruction 
throughout the body, by labor which exercises vig- 
orously the brain and many muscles. 

So a system of organs is provided whose work it 
is to carry to all parts a supply of material as may 
be needed for building or repairing. This is the 
circulcdory system. The blood — a bright red fluid 
with which we are all familiar — floats the building 
and repairing material through the channels and 
reservoirs of the circulatory system. Let us learn 
some more about this important fluid. 

Strange as it may seem to you, the 
liquid of the blood is no more red than 
water is red. The blood is really a thin, watery fluid 
in w^hich millions of little bodies called corpuscles 
float. The colorless liquid in which these corpuscles 
float is called the plasma. Looking at blood with 
the naked eye we do not even suspect its interesting 
composition. But the microscope reveals wonders 
in every drop of this life-giving fluid. It shows that 
the corpuscles are of two kinds — red and white. 
The red corpuscles are by far the most numerous, 
and give the blood its bright red color. They have 



58 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. • 

a curious tendency to arrange themselves like a pile 
of coins. Both the red and the white corpuscles, as 
they appear under the microscope, are shown on the 
sixth plate of the Aid. 

_ , In order that the blood may be carried 

Orsans of the •' 

Circulatory to even the remotest parts of the body, 
System. there must be larger and smaller ves- 

sels to serve as channels through which it may flow 
in streams of different size. It requires also a pro- 
pelling organ which shall cause the blood to flow 
steadily and in suflScient quantity through the ci*i^ 
culation channels. All these organs and vessels ate 
properly provided in the body. The heart is the 
propelling engine. The arteries, veins and capil- 
laries are the circulatory channels. 

[liefer to fourth chart.) The heart lies 
near the center of the chest, a little to 
the left of the middle line. A man's heart is about 
as large as his fist. It is a very strong muscular 
pump or engine, and does an enormous amount of 
very important work, as we shall soon see. It has 
four reservoirs or chambers — two on each side. 
The upper chamber of the right side of the heart is 
called the right auricle (U) ; below this (W) is the 
right ventricle. The left auricle ( Y) forms the upper 
chamber, and the left ventricle (X) the lower cham- 
ber of the left side of the heart. Between the cham- 
bers of the right side and those of the left side is a 
closed partition. So the heart may be regarded as 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 59 

a double organ. The upper aud lower chambers — 
that is, the auricles and ventricles — are separated 
by valves, whose important use we shall learn when 
we trace the course of the blood through the heart. 
The heart is covered with a loose sac 
fj^^'^""^/^^ which is very delicate and as smooth 

the Heart. ^^ 

as satin. This covering sac has been 
called the heart's "night-cap" — a name which w^ould 
be much more appropriate were it not for the fact that 
the heart wears this ''cap" both night and day. Physi- 
ologists call it the pericardium^ w^hich means, about 
the heart. The pericardium secretes from the blood 
a thin fluid which gathers on the inner side of the 
sac. In this way the surface of the heart is kept 
smooth and moist, so that all harm from friction, on 
account of the heart's movements, is prevented. This 
is another illustration of the divine foresight and 
care in planning the wonderful structure of our 
bodies. 

The chart gives us a good general view 
Arteries and ^£ y^^ arterial and venous blood-chan- 

Veins. 

nels of the body. Having observed 
carefully the posiiion of the heart, notice the dis- 
tribution of arteries and veins throughout every part. 
With one exception (the pulmonary artery, 16), the 
arteries are shown in red. The veins, with one ex- 
ception (the pulmonary veins, 31), are shown in 
blue. The same exceptions being made, the arteries 
carry the pure blood and the veins the impure. In 
the general view we are now taking of the circula- 



60 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

tioD, as shown on the chart, we observe the great 
artery called the aorta (15) starting from the heart. 
It sends great branches upward (19, 21) to the 
neck and head, and sideward (20, 22) through 
shoulders, arms, hands and fingers. The aorta, 
after making a great bend or arch (17), passes 
downward through the trunk of the body. As it 
descends, it gives off important branches to the 
great internal organs as well as to the walls of the 
chest and abdomen. In the lower part of the abdo- 
men, two great arterial branches are formed (42) to 
be again subdivided and distributed to the hip re- 
gion and down through the lower extremities even 
to the ends of the toes. 

While the left side of the figure shows the dis- 
tribution of arteries, the right side is made to show 
the venous system. We see the veins start from all 
parts as tiny vessels, collecting into larger channels, 
and finally entering from below into the great ascend- 
ing vein (47) and from above into the great descend- 
ing vein (14), both of which empty into the right 
upper chamber of the heart, that is, into the right 
auricle (U). 

We find a wise provision in the cross- 
intersections. , . 1-1 p 1 • J I 

connections which are lound m the cir- 
culatory channels in many parts of the body. Both 
the arteries and the veins have such connecting 
branches, especially at places where an obstruction 
to the free flow of the blood through any one chan- 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 61 

nel is liable to occur. This arrangement is well 
shown on the chart in the veins of the right leg. 

The arteries are very strong elastic 
structure of ^^y^ through which the blood is driv- 

the Arteries. ' ^ 

en with much force by the strong pro- 
pelling action of the heart. Since the w^ounciing of 
an artery is liable to result in a loss of blood, to a 
dangerous extent, the arteries are, as a rule, deeply 
imbedded among the muscles and other tissues of 
the body. At a few places where they lie quite near 
to the surface, as at the temples, or at the wrist, the 
throbbing of the blood as it is driven through the 
artery by the action of the heart, may be plainly 
felt. These throbbings are called the pulse. The 
interior structure and the various coats of an artery, 
as they appear under the microscope, are shown on 
the sixth chart. 

The veins are much more limp, or less 
structure of elastic than the arteries, and the blood 

the Veins. ' 

flows through them at a much more 
sluggish rate. As a rule, the veins lie much nearer 
to the surface of the body than the arteries. They 
may frequently be easily traced as the bluish blood 
flows through them close beneath the skin. To pre- 
vent the blood in the veins from flowing in a back- 
ward direction, they are provided with valves. These 
valves, together with the general structure of a vein, 
are also represented, in enlarged view, on the sixth 
chart. 



62 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 



The capillaries are very fine tubes con- 
]^^®.-_ ,. necting the arteries with the veins. 

Their name comes from a Latin word 
which means, a hair. It is diflficult to imagine how 
numerous these little capillary blood-vessels are, and 
how well they are distributed to all parts of the body. 
You could scarcely prick your skin with a needle any- 
where without bringing some blood to the surface; 
you are sure to pierce some capillary and cause it 
to leak. 

We have now described the heart and 
'^i^!L^^«J'^^^ the blood-vessels of the circulatory 

of the Blood. J 

system. Let us next trace and learn 
the course of the blood through these organs. [Re- 
fer io sixth chart). This figure in the middle of this 
chart will help us clearly to understand it. Here the 
heart is laid open, showing its inner chambers and 
the valves between them. This large blood-vessel 
(27) is one of the two great veins which empty the 
impure blood from the body into the right auricle of 
the heart. It is called the descending vena cava, 
because it brings the blood from parts above the 
heart. Here (51) is the other of these large veins 
— the ascendiny vena cava, bringing the impure blood 
from the lower parts. From the right auricle (28) 
the blood goes through a valve-like partition into the 
right ventricle (29). The object of the valve is to 
prevent the blood from going back from the right 
ventricle into the auricle above, which would other- 
wise surely happen when the muscles of the ventricle 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM, 63 

contract to drive the blood forward in its course. 
From the right ventricle the blood goes out of the 
heart to the lungs through the pulmonory artery 
(32). This great artery, as we see, is divided into 
branches whose numerous sub-divisions are distri- 
buted through the right and left lungs, where the 
process of purifying the blood is performed, in a 
manner which will be described in the next chapter. 
Coming back from the lungs to the heart, the blood 
flows through the pulmonary vein (33), which 
empties into the left auricle. From here it passes 
through a valve into the left ventricle. Now notice 
the thick muscle of the left ventricle. When this 
strong muscle contracts, the blood is forced out 
through the aorta (34), which branches out into 
many arteries, and then into capillaries, all through 
the body, as is here beautifully shown. From the 
capillaries the blood is collected by the smallest vein- 
lets, to be carried into larger streams, which farther 
unite to bring it into the great ascending and descend- 
ing veins, with which we began our tracing of its 
course. Wonderful to tell, this w^hole circuit is made 
in less than half a minute ! 

It is well for you to learn and trace the 
Summarized course of the blood in this way: Com- 

Course. •/ 

ing impure from the body it flows into 
the right auricle; then through the valve into the 
right ventricle; then through the pulmonary artery 
to the lungs ; then through the pulmonary veins to 
the left auricle; then through the valve into the left 



64 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

ventricle; then through the aorta into many arteries; 
then into the capillaries ; then into the veins, which 
return it to the heart. 

There are really three divisions of the 

Three Divi- 
sions of tlie circulatory system. The first is the 
Circulation. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ 

through the body for building and repair. This is 
called the systemic circulation. The second is its 
course from the heart through the lungs for its puri- 
fication. This is called the pulmonary circulaiion. 
The third is a special course of a part of the blood 
through the liver. This is called the portal cir- 
culation. 



The portal circulation is a special feature 
mTiSon*^* of the systemic division. "We see here 

(58, 59) how several of these prominent 
veins gather the impure blood from these lower 
organs in the body, and, gathering into this large 
portal vein (60), it is thrown into the liver. As we 
shall learn further on, this blood also contains food 
substances which the veins have absorbed from the 
stomach and intestines. After being partly purified 
by the action of the liver, the blood is again collected 
into the hepatic vein (52) which turns it, as you see, 
into the large ascending vein (51) which goes to 
the heart. 

In the capillaries are the landing places 

Blood change ^ m . 

in the where the little cargoes of building 

capillaries, j^^terial, which have been floated from 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 65 

the heart through the arterial rivers, are unloaded 
and distributed to the thousands of little working 
cells which are everywhere busy in building or repair- 
ing the body. At some places material for muscle is 
unloaded ; at others material for bone, nerve, or finger- 
nail is wanted. In exchange for this new material 
which the capillaries distribute io the body, they take 
back from the body the material which has become 
old, worn-out and unfit for use. The consequence is 
that the blood which has come from the arteries into 
the capillaries red and pure, leaves them and gathers 
in the veins, dark and impure. It would be alto- 
gether unfit to make another round through the body 
without being purified ; so the capillaries deliver it 
to the veins, and these carry it to the heart, which 
drives it to the lungs — organs of another system — 
where its worn-out matter is unloaded, and it is again 
made fit to feed the body. 

The heart is, by far, the stroni^est mus- 

Tlie Muscular "^ ^ , , 

Work of the cular part of the body. No engine in 
Heart. ^j_^^ world, of its size, has so much 

strength. By the contraction and relaxation of its 
muscular walls it receives the blood into its reser- 
voirs and again propels it onw^ard in its course 
through the body. When the auricle muscles relax 
the ventricle walls contract. The result is that blood 
flows inio the auricles — on the right side from the 
body, on the left side from the lungs — and out of the 
ventricles — on the right side towards the lungs, on 
the left side towards the body. When, next, the 



66 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

auricle walls contract and the ventricle mascles relax, 
the blood flows from the auricles into the ventricles. 
This wonderful ''rhythm of life" is kept up from 
birth to death — sometimes through even more than 
" three score years and ten" — at the rate of 100,000 
beats per day, 40,000,000 beats per year, and in the 
life-time of an octogenarian, 8,000,000,000 times 
without a stop! 

The rapidity with which the blood es- 
woun'ciT^^^* capes from a wounded blood-vessel 

depends upon the severity of the injury 
and the kind and size of the wounded vessel. From 
a pierced capillary, the blood may leak only in tiny 
drops. From a wounded vein the blood may flow in 
considerable quantity, but its escape from a vein is 
usually steady, and, in most cases, soon stopped by 
Nature's method of forming a "clot" in the wound. 
But from a wounded artery the blood "jets" with 
much force, to a considerable distance, and often in 
dangerous quantity. It is easy to tell whether a vein 
or an artery has been cut, by the greater force with 
which the blood spurts from the latter. 

Usually Nature can help herself in stop- 
su^^^es^ons P^^S *^^^ bleeding of a wound, so that 

in most cases no artificial measures need 
be taken to stop the flow. However, cases do fre- 
quently occur where the blood escapes from a 
wounded artery with so much force as to prevent 
the formation of a clot to stop the bleeding. Hence, 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 67 

bleeding to death has often occurred. In case of a 
serious cut of an artery on one of the limbs, a hand- 
kerchief or other bandage should be promptly bound 
about the limb above the wound, and drawn as tight 
as possible. It may even be necessary to twist the 
bandage down, using a stick as a lever, until the 
flow of blood through the injured artery is stopped 
by the pressure of the twisted knot. 

The steady and thoroue^h work of the 

Health of the "^ . ^ 

Circulatory organs of the circulatory system is very 
System. essential to life and health. Any cause 

which tends seriously to increase or diminish the 
normal rate of the heart's action, is a thing to be 
avoided. The ordinary quickening of the flow^ of the 
blood, as in moderate exercise of the body, is not only 
harmless, but healthful. Here, again, exercise must 
be commended as a prime condition of a healthy cir- 
culation. Any part of the body which, from any 
cause whatever, remains comparatively unused, will 
not be supplied by the circulatory system with a 
sufficient quantity of pure blood to maintain its 
vigor. Such a part will therefore gradually wither 
and die. It follows that we need that kind of exer- 
cise regularly which will call into use all parts of the 
body, and thus prompt the flow of blood into every 
nook and corner of our physical structure. 

OUTIilNE. 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
r Central orgao, the heart. 
What? ] Arteries, blood-vessels leading /rom the heart. 
( Veins, blood-vessels leading to the heart. 



68 



ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 



What? < 



Where? 



Why? 



Capillaries, uniting arteries and veins. 

Three divisions of the circulation: 

From heart to lungs and back to heart, for purifi- 
cation — pulmonary circnlation. 

From heart to body and back to heart, for nutri- 
tion — systemic circulation. 

From veins of digestive organs through liver, for 
partial purification— porfaZ circulation. 

Heart in chest, near middle. 

Arteries, veins and capillaries distributed through- 
out the body. 

To carry pure blood to all parts of the body. 
To gather up useless or waste material and carry 
it to the organs which remove it from the system. 



QUESTIONS. 

What can you say of the growth or building of the body? 

What can you say of the " wear and tear'' of the body? 

What is the object of the circulatory system? 

What is the use of the blood? 

What are the organs and vessels of the circulation? 

Where is the heart situated? 

About how large is the human heart? 

Tell what you can about its purpose. 

How many chambers has the heart? 

Where is the right auricle? 

Where is the right ventricle? 

Where is the left auricle? 

Where is the left ventricle? 

What are the arteries? 

What kind of blood do the arteries usually carry? 

What are the veins? 

Do they usually carry pure or impure blood? 

What kind of blood flows through the pulmonary artery? 

What kind of blood flows through the pulmonary vein? 

Why do the veins have valves? 

What are the capillaries? 

What change in the blood takes place in the capillaries? 



THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 69 

By what large vein is the blood from the lower body brought 

to the heart? 
By what large vein is the blood from the upper body brought 

to the heart? 
What prevents the blood from flowing backward from the 

ventricle to the auricle? 
What is the work of the pulmonary artery? 
What of the pulmonary veins? 
Why is the muscle of the left heart extra strong? 
What is the aorta? 
Now trace the course of the blood, beginning where it comes 

impure to the right auricle. 
How many divisions of the circulatory system? 
Why does the heart send the blood to the lungs? 
Why through all parts of the body? 

Why is a large part of the blood carried through the liver? 
What is meant by the pulse? 
What is the effect of exercise on the circulation? 
May exercise become too violent? 

How is the circulation affected in an unused part of the body? 
What is the best kind of exercise? 

Note. — Teachers as well as pupils who may desire a fuller 
description of the distribution of the arterial and venous sys- 
tems, will find it in the supplementary part of this book. 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 



We have learned that the blood, in every round 
of its circulation through the body, is made quite 
impure by the worn-out or waste material which it 
takes- on in the capillaries, and therefore must under- 
go a purifying process to make it fit to repeat its 
course through the system. For this purifying pur- 
pose the body is furnished with the respiratory 
system. 



70 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

Work of the "^^^ work assigned to this system is 
Respiratory twofold in its nature. It must supply 

the blood, at every round, with a new 
supply of oxygen, and, at the same time, unload from 
the blood the impure matter which it brings to the 
place of purification. The chief organs of this system 
by which this double work is accomplished, are the 
lungs^ which lie in the chest, close around the heart, 
the two organs together completely filling the cav- 
ity of the chest. Let us get a clear and accurate 
idea where these important organs are situated. 
( Turn to the body manikin, ) Here is a manikin of 
the body. Eemoving first the skin, then the outer 
muscles of the trunk, we have the ribs (3, 4, 5) 
before us. Removing these, the contents of the chest 
are shown precisely in their natural places. These 
(8, 9) are the lungs. The heart lies immediately 
under and between them. Below the heart and the 
lungs, that is, between the chest and the abdomen, 
lies this strong, flat muscle (26) called the dia- 
phragm^ whose important service in the work of the 
respiratory system we shall learn about farther on. 

The lungs are very spongy and light, 
fhe^unss.^^ being composed largely of air-cells, 

whose walls are very delicate. The 
right lung has three lobes (a, b, c) and the left lung 
two (d, e). The air-cells of the lungs, are all con- 
nected with tubes called hroyichial tubes (25, third 
section of lungs). An inflammation of these tubes is 
called bronchitis. Besides the air-passages and air- 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 71 

cells which make up a great part of the bulk of the 
lungs, they contain numerous larger and smaller 
blood-vessels which carry the blood into them and 
through them from the heart, and out of them back 
to the heart. 

_ The bronchial tubes unite in one lars^e 

The Trachea. ^ 

air-passage (24) called the trachea or 
wind-pipe. In the upper part of the wind-pipe, which 
comes close up to the mouth, the instrument of 
the voice called the larynx, is situated. It is this 
enlarged portion of the trachea (21, 22, 23). The 
more definite structure of the larynx or voice-organ 
is shown by the special manikin overlying the parts 
just referred to. It will be spoken of more par- 
ticularly hereafter. The arrangement of the air-cells 
and air-passages reminds one of an inverted tree. 
The larynx, or voice-organ, corresponds to the lower 
and thicker part of the trunk of the tree; the trachea 
to the trunk itself; the branching air-tubes in the 
lungs to the branches and twigs, and the air-cells to 
the leaves. 

irhat tak ^^^ pulmonary artery, which brings the 
place in the impure blood from the heart into the 
ungs. lungs (16), branches out into many 

smaller arteries and still farther into a great many 
capillary tubes which wind among and around the 
numerous air-cells. When the cells of the lungs 
are filled with air, the oxygen of the air, in a wonder- 
ful way, passes through the wall of the cell and the 



72 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

wall of the capillary and unites with the blood. At 
the same time, impurities from the blood pass through 
capillary wall and cell-wall into the cells and out 
through the air-passages with the escaping breath. 
In this way the blood is renewed, purified and bright- 
ened by the life-giving oxygen, and starts off vigor- 
ously on another round through the body. The 
air-tubes, cells and capillary net work in the lungs, 
and the decided change in the color of the blood 
after being relieved of its impurities and taking 
on a fresh supply of oxygen, are nicely shown in 
the figure on the right hand upper corner of the sixth 
chart. 
_ , . Breathing^ is the act of the body by 

Breathing. ^ . . 

which the lungs are filled with air and 
emptied again at proper intervals. This opera- 
tion is so important and essential to life, that it has 
been entrusted to the performance of muscles of the 
involuntary kind, that is, such as are not dependent 
on the direction of the mind. It is true, the will 
may interfere with the work of these muscles, so 
that we may suspend breathing to some extent. But 
it is Nature's plan that this work should be com- 
mitted to faithful nerve-centers and muscles appoint- 
ed for the purpose. It is well that this is so, for, 
otherwise, during sleep or other unconscious moments, 
when the mind gives no direction to the body, breath- 
ing would stop and life would end. Even when 
awake and in health, in this very busy age, we 
might forget to breathe. 



How Ave 
Breathe. 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 73 

The scientific name for breathing is 
respiration. The act of respiration 
which brings air into the lungs is called 
inspiration', that which drives the air from the lungs, 
expiration. There are quite a number of muscles 
concerned in these acts. When the lungs are to bo . 
filled, these muscles expand the walls of the chest so 
as to enlarge the space inside. The air rushes in 
through the mouth, nose and wind-pipe, and fills the 
cells. Then a reverse action is produced by the 
muscles. The chest contracts and the air is forced 
out from the lungs by the same way through which 
it entered, but robbed of its oxygen and mixed with 
gases and impurities discharged from the body. 

Between the chest and abdomen is the 
uT^M^scles^" ^^'^^^^ partition muscle, the diaphragm 
(26) which has already been mentioned. 
This muscle is chiefly concerned in ordinary, gentle 
breathing. When the lungs are to be filled, the 
diaphragm moves downward, pressing upon the con- 
tents of the abdomen. At the same time the muscles 
of the abdomen relax to make more room for the 
abdominal organs which are pressed down by the 
descending diaphragm. The outer motion of the 
abdomen wall can be seen and felt at every inspira- 
tion. Thus the cavity of the chest is enlarged, giv- 
ing the lungs room for full expansion, provided the 
act of inspiration is unrestricted and complete. In 
expiration, the diaphragm rises and diminishes the 
cavity of the chest, forcing the air out of the lungs. 



74 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

Besides the movements of the diaphragm in alter- 
nately enlarging and diminishing the capacity of the 
chest, there are other muscles concerned in the act 
of breathing. This is especially true in forced 
breathing. Referring to the rib section of the 
manikin, you observe muscles extending in different 
directions between neighboring ribs (6). These are 
called the intercostal muscles. On account of their 
various directions, their contraction moves the ribs, 
in various ways producing as many alterations of the 
size of the chest cavity. Likewise, there are other 
muscles which take more or less part in breathing. 
The inside of the chest is lined with a 

Pleura. 

delicate web called the pleura. On the 
rib section the left side is shown with the intercostal 
muscles removed, exposing the pleura (7) within. 
This membrane is also spread as a covering over the 
lungs. It secretes a watery fluid which keeps the 
walls of the chest and the surface of the lungs moist, 
and thus prevents friction which would otherwise 
be produced in the movements of breathing. An 
inflammation of tlie pleura is called pleurisy. When 
both pleura and lungs are inflamed it is called pteiira- 
pneumonia. 
» 1*1. ^^lu From what we have learned of the 

Health of tlie 

Respiratory structure of the cliest and the action 
i^aus. ^^ ^j^^ lungs in breathing, we cannot 

fail to see that the healthy and natural action of the 
respiratory system requires perfect freedom of motion 
or expansion of every part concerned in the vital act 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 76 

of respiration. It is Nature's plan that every air-cell 
in the lungs should perform its appointed part with 
all the rest, at every breath. If the habit of breath- 
ing full and deep, when the chest is perfectly free 
to expand and the body is in erect or straight posi- 
tion, is well formed, every lung-cell will be filled at 
each inspiration. But if the chest is in any degree 
restricted and compressed, the lungs will be but 
partly filled, and many of the air-cells will lose their 
elasticity, and finally become utterly useless. Such 
an injurious interference with the natural expansion 
of the chest may be produced by habitual unnatural 
positions in sitting or walking, or by wearing the 
clothing too tight about the body. 

We have learned that the flow of blood 
through the vessels of the circulatory 
system is much quickened by exercise. So the ra- 
pidity of the flow of the blood through the lungs 
depends very much on the degree of our bodily 
activity. When we lie in bed, for instance, the cir- 
culation goes on very steadily, and our breathing is 
performed very moderately and quietly. But as 
soon as we arise and raove about, both the circulation 
and respiration are quickened. The more vigorous 
the activity of the body, the more air is drawn into 
the lungs to purify the greater quantity of flowing 
blood. The chest muscles act more strongly, and 
every cell in the lungs is inflated. All this tends to 
produce pure blood and active lungs, and, conse- 
quently, good health. 



76 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

The qitalUy or purity of the air which we 
th^^Breath ^^ breathe is quiteasimportaBtas iliequan- 

iity which we inhale. We have learned 
that the oxygen, which is one of the gases or ele- 
ments Avhich compose the air, is taken from the lung- 
cells to unite with the blood. This alone would 
make the breath which is given out impure because 
of its haying been robbed of its oxygen. But the 
air which is forced out from the lungs is made much 
more impure by the gases which come from the 
impure blood of the body. These gases escape from 
the lungs at every breath. It is plain that if we 
breathe in a close room, or in a confined body of air, 
every breath adds to the degree of impurity of the 
air, so that the latter becomes more and more unfit 
to breathe. It becomes unfit to sustain life, not 
only because it is robbed of the life-supporting oxy- 
gen, but because one of the gases which are expelled 
from the body, by the breath, acts like a poison 
when it is inhaled (re-breathed) again. 

Ventilation means the furnishing of the 

needed supply of pure air. Nothing is 
more important in the line of hygienic or health 
precepts than this, that we should avoid the breath- 
ing of air which has been made impure by the breath. 
To avoid this, it is necessary to have, at all times, a 
proper interchange between the air of the room and 
the pure, free air without. No person can remain 
long in a closed room without being injured by his 
own breath. There must be a place of escape for 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 77 

the impure air and a place of entrance for the pure 
air. Since the impure products of the breath, being 
warmer and consequently lighter on being exhaled, 
rise toward the top of a room, they escape best from 
the opening of a window at the top, while pure air 
enters best through an opening lower down. But 
without attempting to describe any of the numerous 
plans of ventilation, let this precept suffice: Get 
from the abundance of pure air which God has pro- 
vided, as much as you can at every breath, and avoid, 
as a poison, the inhalation of impure air. 

THE VOICE. 

The organs of the voice are so closely connected 
with the respiratory system that we will give a brief 
description of them here. 

The chief organ of the voice is the larynx. 

This is really an expansion of the upper 

The Liarynx. i p xi • i • i i 

end or the wind-pipe, as already seen. 
(Eefer io the manikin of the larynx above last lung 
section). The structure of this wonderful musical 
instrument is very peculiar. It comes close up to 
the mouth, being directly connected with the bone 
at the base of the tongue. This (hyoid) bone with 
its peculiar "horns" is shown at (1) and (2) on the 
section. The frame of the larynx is composed of a 
number of cartilages. The largest of these is the 
//?2/roKZ cartilage (4), whose prominent projection in 
front is commonly called, "Adam's apple*' (5). At 
(3) is shown a ligament, and at (6) a muscle which 



78 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

unite the tongue bone and the thyroid cartilag^^. 
Below, at (9) is a ring-like cartilage called the 
cricoid (9), united to the thyroid by muscles (8). 
These, with several other cartilages, form a sort of 
box, along whose inner sides are stretched two pairs 
of cords. The upper pair (13, second secUon) are 
called false cords. The lower pair (12), are the 
true vocal cords. These come more or less closely 
together at the middle of the larynx, the slit or chink 
between them (14) being called the glottis. Through 
this glottis every in-going and out-going breath 
ordinarily passes silently. But when the muscles 
which regulate the vocal cords tighten up these 
cords, Avhile air is being expelled from the lungs, a 
sound is produced, either high or low, according to 
the degree of tension or tightness, to which the vocal 
cords are drawn. The epiglottis (11) is a curious 
lid-like cartilaginous covering at the top of the 
larynx. It is attached at one end but loose at the 
other. The object of the epiglottis is this: Since 
the tube through which the food passes from the 
mouth to the stomach lies immediately behind the 
larynx and trachea, the act of swallowing would 
evidently cause food particles to enter the larynx 
and even the lungs, if there were no provision made 
to prevent it. Such prevention is the work of the 
epiglottis. The same muscular act which, in swallow- 
ing, causes the food to pass from the mouth into the 
throat, also shuts the epiglottis down, like a trap- 
door over the opening of the larynx, so that it passes 



THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, 79 

safely on into the proper tube which carries it to the 
stomach. 

If you have learned to sing up and 
An Experi- (Jown the eififht tones of the musical 

nient. ^ 

scale, you may easily perform an experi- 
ment on the action of the muscles which control the 
tension of the vocal cords. Sound slowly the syl- 
lables up and down the scale. You will feel a change 
in the contraction of the larynx muscles at every 
change of tone. Going up the scale, that is, to a 
higher and higher pitch, you will feel a tightening 
action of these muscles ; coming dozen the scale to a 
lower and lower pitch, an opposite effect will be felt. 

The action of the breath on the vocal 
cords which has just been described, 
produces vocal sounds of different pz/c/^. Their loiid- 
7iess depends upon the degree or force with which 
the breath is forced through the glottis, just as a 
boy's more forcible blowing through his mouth- 
organ, or a cornetist's more intense blast of air 
through his cornet, causes a louder sound to escape 
from these instruments. But the sounds of higher 
or lower pitch, and greater or less loudness, as they 
come from the larynx are not speech. To produce 
the articulate sounds of language, the sounds which 
are made by the vocal cords are very much modified 
and variously shaped by the changing positions of 
tongue and mouth, which are produced in speaking. 



80 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

This is illustrated in every word we speak, and you 
will find it to be an interesting experiment to utter 
slowly the sounds which compose some word, while 
noticing the changes which you make in the position 
of your mouth and tongue. 

OTJTIilNE. 

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 



Lungs, very light and spongy, chiefly composed 

of air-cells. 
Trachea — commonly called wind-pipe. 
Larynx — upper part of trachea, and organ of the 

voice. 
Air-passages through mouth and nose. 
Chief respiratory muscles— the diaphragm and 

inter-costal muscles. 



What? ^ 



f Lungs — in middle of the chest. 
I Trachea — between throat and lungs. 
• ] Diaphragm — between chest and abdomen. 
I Inter-costal muscles — between the ribs. 



Why? 



M 



To furnish oxygen to the blood. 

To expel impurities from the venous blood. 

QUESTIONS. 



What is the use of the respiratory system? 

What are the chief organs of respiration? 

Where are the lungs located? 

Describe their structure. 

What is the trachea? 

What vessel brings the blood from the heart to the lunge? 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 81 

Tell what takes place in the lungs. 

Is the act of breathing performed by voluntary or involun- 
tary muscles? 
Why is this a wise provision? 
What is meant by inspiration'^ 
Describe the process. 
What is meant by expiration? 
Describe the process. 

What is the lining membrane of the chest called? 
What is the benefit of fall and deep breathing? 
What are the consequences of cramping the chest? 
What is the effect of exercise on the lungs? 
How is the air made impure by breathing? 
Tell what you can of the necessity of ventilation. 
Where are the vocal cords? 
How are the sounds of the voice produced? 
How is the pitch of the voice produced? 
How are the lower tones produced? 

What other organs assist in forming the sounde of speech? 
What is the purpose of the epiglottis? 



THE DiaESTIYE SYSTEM. 



Where does the building and repairing material, 
which is delivered to all parts of the body by the 
blood, come from ? How is it prepared and how 
does it find its way into the blood-vessels of the cir- 
culatory system ? These are some of the physiolog- 
ical queries which come to us now. 



82 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

The matter of the body all comes from 
Body.buiiding ^^^. f^^^^ ^o provide our bodies with 

from Blood. ^ 

such material, of good quality and of 
proper quantity, ought to be the main object of our 
eating. Not ail of the food matter which we eat is 
useful in the body. So the means of separating the 
useful from the useless is necessary. Then, again, 
the useful part? of our food must be very much 
changed before they can be used by the building 
cells of the body. So the means for its proper prep- 
aration must be furnished. The system whose or- 
gans prepare the needed elements of the food for 
the blood, and separate the useless from the useful 
portion, is called the digestive system. 

The preparation of food material for 
AidoftheMus- ^j^^ blood requires many operations. 

cular System. ^ J l 

So the digestive system has a greater 
number of special organs than any other system of 
the body. We have seen how the movements and 
work of the circulatory organs depend upon the 
strength and prompt action of the muscles of the 
heart; also, how the respiratory system depends upon 
the muscular system in the steady and proper action 
of the breathing muscles. So, here, as we study the 
processes of the digestive system, we shall find how 
its work depends upon the muscles which are assigned 
to the duty of producing the necessary movements of 
its organs. Even the muscles of the arm and hand 
perform the very first act in the process of feeding 
the body, in properly bringing the food to the mouth- 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 83 

The whole process of preparing food material for the 
blood is called digestion. The first step, that is, 
bringing the food into the mouth, is called prehen- 
sion. 

The second step in digestion is masti- 
woru of the catioii. This is performed in the mouth 

by the teeili. The mouth and the teeth, 
as used in chewing or masticating the food, have 
been called the mill of the body. The grinding in 
this mill is done by the muscles which move the 
jaws so as to produce a cutting, crushing or grind- 
ing effect upon the food by the teeth. 

There are thirty-two teeth in the full 
xumber of g^j. ^^ ^ grown person. These are set 

in sockets of the upper and lower jaw- 
bones — sixteen in each jaw. Eight front teeth- 
four in each jaw — are called incisors, or cutting 
teeth. On each side of these incisors — above and 
below — is a canine tooth. The two upper canines 
are often called eye-teeth, and the lower canines, 
stomcich-teeth. These twelve teeth — eight are incis- 
ors and four canines — separate or bite off a proper 
portion from the food which is brought to the mouth. 
Next to the canines are two bicuspids, on both sides 
of each jaw. Bicuspid means having two cusps. 
Then follow, as back teeth, three molars or grinders 
on both sides of each jaw. These twenty teeth — 
eight bicuspids and twelve molars — do the work of 
crushing or grinding the food to a proper degree of 
fineness. 



84 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

As we have already learned, a tooth 

rTootr'' ""^ ^^ ^^* ^ ^^^^^- ^* ^^^^ ^^* belong to 
the skeleton. The teeth are instru- 
ments or organs of the digestive system. The 
structure of a tooth is an interesting study. To help 
us understand it, we are provided, in the Anatomical 
Aid, with the. means of completely dissecting — that 
is, separating into its parts, the structure of a tooth. 
In the manikin of a tooth, the little projecting 
ridges at the top (1) are called tubercles. The por- 
tion above the gum (2) is called the crown. This 
is covered by a thin layer of enamel^ the hardest 
material in the body. The tooth is mainly composed 
of a substance called dentine^ or ivory (9). At (6) 
and (7) the roots of the tooth are shown. At (12) 
blood-vessels and nerves are seen to enter into 
the tooth. When an opening occurs in the body of 
the tooth, from decay, this nerve is exposed to the 
air and the action of food particles, and toothache 
is the result. 

The third step in dis^estion is insaliva- 

- Work of the . . . 

Salivary Uon. Really, mastication and insaliva- 

andH. j.-^^ ^^^ performed at the same time. 

While the food is being chewed by the teeth, a liquid 
is mixed with it in the mouth. This liquid is spe- 
cially prepared for this purpose, from the blood, by a 
number of organs called salivary glands. By the 
way, let us not forget that all the substances of the 
body are prepared from the blood. A gland is an 
organ which secretes — which means separates — some 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 85 

special or peculiar substance from the blood. So, 
one of the glands of the eye secretes tears, and the 
salivary glands secrete saliva. Three pairs of these 
glands are quite prominent. The largest pair is 
just below and in front of the ears. The second pair, 
in size, lies under the jaw-bone, and the third pair is 
under the tongue. These glands, between meals, 
furnish enough saliva to keep the mouth moist. But 
when food is taken into the mouth and chewed, or 
even at sight of something tempting to the taste, 
they furnish it in great abundance. It not only 
moistens the food so that it may be easily swallowed, 
but it also begins the process of changing the food 
material. 
^,r . ^^^ The fourth step in dis^estion is swal- 

Work of the . . 

Pharynx and lowing. This is a much more familiar 
sop ag:ns. ^y^j.^ than deghdUion, which is the sci- 
entific name for the same act. When the food has 
been properly prepared in the *' mill of the mouth," 
it is swallowed, or sent to the stomach. The cavity 
back of the mouth is called the pharynx. Between 
the pharynx and the stomach {refer io body manikin) 
is this tube (35) called the oesophagus. By the 
action of the muscles of the pharynx and the oesopha- 
gus, the food is moved into the stomach. This is 
deglidition. 

"We have now traced the course of the 
^"toniach ^^^ ^<^o^ into the main organ of digestion — 

the stomach. Here its greatest change 
is to be produced. The position of the stomach 



86 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

should be well understood. Observe it carefully in 
this manikin (31). The stomach has three coats or 
walls. The outer coat is thin and smooth, and fitted 
for the protection of this organ in its contact with 
other organs. The inner coat — called the mucous 
wall — contains many little glands or cells, which 
secrete a substance which is very important in the 
process of digestion. It is called the gastric juice. 



When food comes into the stomach the 

Iwastric Juice. 



Use of the gastric juice is mixed with it. This 



intermixing is made quite thorough by 
the action of the muscles which compose the middle 
coat of the stomach. As long as there is food 
within it, these muscles keep up a churning motion 
of the organ. The result of the action of the gastric 
juice is that the food is very much changed in its 
nature and appearance. It is now called chyme, and 
the change which has been produced in the stomach, 
cliymification. 



At the right end or discharging open- 
ff^^oru J*'^^ ing of the stomach is placed a muscular 

valve called the pylorus. This name 
means gate-keepei\ The pylorus is a door-keeper of 
the stomach. Such portions of the contents of the 
stomach which have been properly changed into 
chyme, it allows to pass out, but refuses passage to 
other portions. Much depends upon the faithfulness 
of this pyloric muscle. When from any cause it 
loses its power, or refuses to act, the food escapes 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 87 

from the stomach before it is prepared to enter the 
intestines, which is a form of indigestion which soon 
destroys life. 

The Liver, as the manikin shows, is a 
th*^ ^^ very large organ overlying the stomach. 

It weighs from three to four pounds. 
It is both a blood-purifying and a secretory organ. 
As a secreting organ, it performs its part in the 
process of digestion by furnishing a substance called 
bile, which it sends through a duct or tube into the 
ditodemim, or upper part of the small intestines, 
where it aids in further change of the chyme 
which has just passed into the intestines from 
the stomach. 

Back of the stomach lies the pancreas 
workoffhe r-QY r^j^-g ^^ furnishes a fluid 

Pancreas. ^ ^ » 

called the j^ancr eat ic Juice, which is also 
brought into the duodenum. The action of the bile, 
the pancreatic fluid and the intestinal juice, is to 
change the chyme into chyle, aud to separate the 
useless or waste portion of the food. This waste 
portion is carried out of the body byway of the 
intestines, and the useful portion, having undergone 
all the processes of digestion, is now ready to be 
given to the circulatory system for transportation 
to every point of demand. How tne chyle is trans- 
ferred from the digestive organs into the blood will 
be shown in the next chapter. 



88 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

Perhaps no system of the body is more 

Health of the ^ ^ fl i. 1 

i>igestive carelessly or more trequently abused 
System. than the digestive system. No system 

of the body brings back upon the abusing offender 
a severer penalty of discomfort. Proper digestion is 
the very first condition cf good health. Hence the 
hygienic principles referring to this system should 
be carefully learned and regarded. 



The injury resulting from eating too 

ig Too 
Fast. 



Eating Too f^g|. ^^^^^^^ chiefly from this, that the 



processes of mastication and insaliva- 
tion cannot be properly performed. Unless the 
food is properly chewed, and thoroughly mixed with 
saliva, its digestion in the stomach will be either 
much retarded or left incomplete. 



The capacity of the stomach is limited. 

Too 
Ifluch. 



Sating Too jj ^^ ^^ Overloaded, it can not thoroughly 



digest its contents. Besides, the gas- 
tric juice is also limited in quantity, and will not 
completely change into chyme more than a proper 
portion. 

Between the digestive operations of the 
Fr^aTent^iy. stomach, it needs intervals of rest. If 

food is taken too frequently, it loses its 
vigor, and soon fails to perform its work in a healthy 
manner. 

Some articles of food, though very 
«e"Se Food, tempting to the taste, are very "trying " 

to the stomach. It is plain, that, if 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 



89 



£xercise. 



these are too frequently eateu, the stomach's action 
will be greatly impaired. If eaten at all, they 
should be sparingly mixed with more digestible 
food. 

Gentle exercise is very helpful to diges- 
tion. But violent exercise, either just 
before or after a meal, is quite as injurious. A 
cheerful state of mind is very helpful in keeping up 
a healthy action of all the digestive organs. 

OUTLINE. 
THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
Teeth— 32 in full set. 
Salivary Glands— three pairs. 
Muscles of Pharynx and (Esophagus. 
WHAT? \ Stomach. 
Liver. 
Pancreas. 
^ Intestines. 
Teeth — in sockets of jaw-bones. 
Salivary Glands — located about the mouth. 
Phaiynx and oesophagus — funnel and tube — 

between mouth and stomach. 
Stomach — under diaphragm in abdomen. 
Liver — overlying the stomach. 
Pancreas — lying back of the stomach. 
^ Intestines — filling lower abdomen. 
f Teeth- to masticate the food. 
Salivary Glands— to furnish saliva. 
Muscles of pharynx and oesophagus move the food 
from mouth to stomach. 
WHY ? \ Stomach — to change food ta chyme. 
Liver— to furnish bile. 
Pancreas — to furnish pancreatic juice. 
Intestines — to complete the work of digestion and 
separate the chyle from the waste matter. 



WHEKE .'' 



^0 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

aUESTIONS. 

From what does all the body material come? 

What processes are necessary to fit food for body nourish- 
ment? 

What is the name of the system which performs these pro- 
cesses? 

What is the first act in the process? 

What steps take place in the mouth? 

How many teeth in a full set? 

Name the different kinds of teeth. 

How is the food conveyed from the mouth to the stomach? 

Describe the work of the stomach. 

By what means is the gastric juice well mixed with the food? 

What is the food, as it leaves the stomach, called? 

Describe the action of the pylorus. 

What does the liver furnish for the work of digestion? 

What is furnished by the pancreas? 

What is the chyle? 

What are the consequences of eating too fast? 

What results from over-eating? 

What from eating too often? 

Vv^'hat from eating indigestible food? 

What are the effects of exercise on the digestion? 



THE ABSOEPTIVE SYSTEM. 



In previous lessons we have learned how food is 
prepared by the organs of the digestive system and 
reduced to a fluid state. Let us also recall what we 
have learned of the circulatory system; how the 
blood is constantly making the circuit of the body, 
carrying food to every tissue. 

The sixth chart of the Anatomical Aid shows most 
admirably all the organs and parts concerned in the 



THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 91 

two processes just referred to, and a careful study of 
this plate will enable us to understand their relation 
to each other. How, then, does the digested food 
get into the circulation? What provision is made 
for transferring it from the digestive system or 
alimentary canal into the blood-vessels? To answer 
these questions, we must first study how food is 
absorbed. 

The food, in its liquid form, must in 
oip 1 XI. ^j^^ ^^^^ place be removed from the 

stomach and intestinal tube. This is accomplished 
by a process called absorption. This work may be 
more easily comprehended by first referring to a 
similar process constantly going on in vegetable 
growths. When set in good soil and supplied with 
water, a plant will send out its small rootlets, whose 
little mouths will drink in [absorb) mineral sub- 
stances from the soil, dissolved by the water. This 
liquid plant-food is carried to the sap [vegetable- 
blood) up through the trunk or stem, to nourish the 
parts of the plant. There is a similar provision for 
taking up the liquid food from the alimentary canal 
into the circulatory channels. There are little root- 
lets provided for this work whose action resembles 
that of the root-fibers of the plant. 
_ Eeally, the process of digestion begins 

^vaii as soon as the saliva comes in contact 

sorp ion. ^^^j.j^ ^1^^^ iood in the mouth. That part 

of the food which is thus prepared for the circula- 
tion by the saliva, together with such liquid portions 



92 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

of the food as are ready to be taken into the blood 
at once, do not pass out through the pyloric valve 
into the intestine, but are at once absorbed throuo-h 
the walls of the stomach by the rootlets of the gastric 
vein, Eefer to the sixth chart and observe how 
these rootlets of stomach veins are distributed all 
through the walls of that organ. These absorbents, 
after taking up or absorbing the prepared food por- 
tions from the stomach, collect in the gastric vein 
(39) which empties into the portal vein (00) which 
throws venous blood mixed with the absorbed food 
portions into the liver, where, after being acted on 
more or less by the liver, it leaves that organ through 
the hepatic vein (52) to be emptied into the great 
ascending vena cava (51), which carries it to the 
right auricle of the heart. 

The food which passes out of the 
^*sTr*tu>n stomach through the pyloric valve to be 

farther digested in the intestines, is 
taken into the circulation in two ways. Food solu- 
tions which are not fatty, go by way of the liver, while 
fatty substances go by altogether a different transfer 
route. Let us first follow that portion which goes 
from the intestines to the heart by way of the liver. 
Referring again to the chart last mentioned, 
notice how the rootlets of the mesenteric veins (58) 
are distributed through the walls of the intestines. 
As the gastric veinlets collect food solutions from 
the stomach, so these mesenteric veinlets collect 
digested food substances from the intestines, to be 



THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 93 

carried by the portal vein (60) into the liver and 
from thence to the heart. 

For the double absorption which goes 
vulT**"^* on in the intestines, there is a special 

provision made in the structure of these 
organs. The inner wall or coating of the small in- 
testines has a velvety or plush-like appearance. 
This is due to the myriads of little hair-like projec- 
tions which hang down from the inner walls and 
point toward the center of the tube. These small 
cones or fingers are called villi, a word which signi- 
fies hair-like bodies. These villi are very numerous, 
covering the intestinal lining as with a coat of hair. 
Observe that in the middle of the chart a portion of 
the intestine is represented as cut open to show these 
villi points within. These villi, which dip into the 
liquid contents of the alimentary canal, are not them- 
selves the absorbents, but they contain the absorbing 
rootlets which take up the food and start it on the 
way to the heart. 

The lower right-hand figure on the 
fif^'^n^*,^^^ ^^ sixth chart skives us a beautiful idea of 

the Villi. ^ 

the structure of the villi, as seen 
through the eye of the microscope. A dozen or 
more villi are shown in the figure. Three of them 
are shown as cut open. The walls of each villus is 
curiously laid up of many cells (epithelium). With- 
in are blood-vessels, arteries and veins. These are 
the mesenteric absorbents which have already been 
mentioned as collecting into the portal vein. 



94 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

The microscopic view also shows a sin- 
t^T\^lV g^^ *^^^' ^ith rootlets, extending 

lengthwise through the center of each 
little villus, surrounded by the meshes of the small 
veins jast described. This tube is a lacteal Lac 
means milk, and it is owing to the milk-like appear- 
ance of their contents that the term lacteal is applied 
to these absorbing vessels. 

The lacteals absorb the fatty portions of 
Lacteais.'^ the digested food. After they emerge 

from the villi, they are called chylifer- 
ous vessels. These pass through numerous lymphatic 
glands (mesenteria) (d), and finally empty into the 
chyle receptacle shown on the main figure at (24). 

The chyle receptacle is a sac-like expan- 

Tlioracic ^-^^ ^f ^j^^ j^^^^ ^^^ ^j ^j^^ ihoracic 

I>uct. 

duct (25), which is about as large as a 
slate pencil or a goose-quill. This carries the chyle 
upward in front of the spinal column and behind the 
oesophagus (I). At its upper end it bends forward 
and downward, something like the crook of a walking- 
cane, and pours its contents into the left subclavian 
vein (50), from which point it soon reaches the 
great descending aorta (27) which empties it into 
the right auricle of the heart. 

Thus we have traced the different sub- 
what Has stances of which the di^fested food is 

Been Done. ^ 

composed, by different routes to the 
same cavity of the heart, there to mingle with each 
other, and with the impure blood collected from all 



THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 95 

parts of the body. We have found the viaducts 
Avhich span the gap between the digestive and the 
circulatory systems. 

The food is now in charge of the great 

Assimilation. ., 111 1 • 1 • 11 1 

carrier, the blood, which is propelled 
by the heart to the lungs to be purified, then re- 
turned to the left side of the heart, whence it is 
driven out through the great aorta and its numerous 
subdivisions to all parts of the system. Now, just 
as a freight agent at a railway station takes from a 
stopping train just such freight as is intended for 
his particular station, so every tissue of the body 
selects just such parts from the blood as it can 
appropriate to its use or utilize in repairing itself. 
The bones take from the blood such material as will 
make bone-cells; the muscles will select such as will 
make muscular tissue. In this way every part of the 
body is nourished, and the wonderfully mysterious 
process by which each cell and tissue selects mate- 
rials brought to it for its growth and development is 
called assimilation. This term is appropriate, be- 
cause it means making like. 

So that the important processes which 
^ti^n****" ^® have just been studying may be im- 
pressed upon our minds and remem- 
bered, let us recapitulate by tracing a morsel of bread 
and butter from the mouth to the tissues of the body 
wdiich are nourished by it. ''Bread and butter" 
may be considered as an almost perfect diet, since 
it contains nearly every ingredient necessary to sus- 



96 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

tain life. Tlie bread represents one class of food, 

and the butter another class. 

1. It is masticated in the mouth, and 
thoroughly mixed with the saliva, which 

begins the process of digestion. 

2. By the action of the muscles of the pharynx 
and oesophagus it is forced into the stomach. 

3. In the stomach it is acted upon by the gastric 
jaice and most of it is digested. 

4. It is forced through the pylorus into the small 
intestines. 

5. Here it is absorbed principally by the blood- 
vessels of the villi. 

6. The small veins now carry it into the portal 
vein, which empties it into the liver from below. 

7. It passes out of the liver and is carried by the 
large ascending vein to the heart. 

8. It is carried with the blood to the lungs, and 
is returned as red blood to the heart. 

9. It is pumped by the heart to all parts of the 
body. 

10. It is assimilated by the various tissues. 

1. It is masticated with the bread. 

The Butter. rk tj • n t 

2. It IS swallowed. 

3. It passes from the stomach to the intestines 
unchanged. 

4. By the action of the bile and pancreatic juice, 
it is converted into chyle, 

5. Being fatty substance, it is absorbed chiefly 
by the lacteals. 



THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 97 

6. The chyliferous vessels carry it through the 
lymphatic glands into the chyle receptacle of the 
thoracic duct. 

7. The thoracic duct empties it into the sub- 
clavian vein from whence it soon reaches the right 
auricle of the heart. 

8. From this point, the two kinds of food travel 
together in the current of the impure blood, to the 
lungs ; then with the purified blood back to the heart ; 
thence to the out-posts of the body, carrying nourish- 
ment wherever needed. 

Besides the absorption processes already 
i^ympiiatic described, by which the nutritive food 

Absorption. ' J 

substances are transferred from the 
digestive system into the channels of the blood, 
there is another very important absorptive process 
carried on in all parts of the body. The vessels by 
which this is done are called the lymphatics. 

The lymphatics commence as very small 
ami*»istri- absorbing rootlets or tubes in all parts 
bution of tbe of the skin, in the lining membranes 

of passages and cavities within the 
body, in the covering membranes of all the internal 
organs, and especially at all points where secretions 
are apt to accumulate. In gathering from their 
numerous points of beginning towards the more 
central parts of the body, the lymphatics pass 
through many little glands or knot-like bodies, which 
vary in size from that of a pin-head to an inch in 
diameter. These are called lymphatic glands. Some 



98 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

of the lymphatics, from the upper part of the body, 
empty directly into the great veins near the heart. 
Most of them, however, are gathered into larger 
vessels through Avhich they finally empty their con- 
tents into the thoracic duct. 

The fluid which the lymphatics absorb 
jmpi. is called lymjDh, which signifies trans- 

parent fluid. Lymph is found widely distributed 
throughout the whole system. In composition, it 
strongly resembles the plasma of the blood, and con- 
tains minute bodies or corpuscles resembling the 
white corpuscles of the blood ; these are called lymph 
globules or lymph corpuscles. 

This fluid is supposed to be mostly 
Orig^in of worn-out material ^fathered from all 

JLympli. ^ 

parts of the body. It probably consists 
of portions of blood ingredients which have oozed 
through the walls of the arteries, veins and blood 
capillaries, together wdth certain products of the ex- 
change of old for new material, which is continually 
going on in the body. These substances are 
gathered up by tiny vessels, and, after being worked 
over, in a manner not well understood, they are 
capable of further use in the body. Thus we see a 
wise economy in allowing nothing to go to waste 
which can in any way be put to further use. This 
reminds us of the economy practiced in sifting coal- 
ashes taken from our stoves and furnaces, saving 
therefrom such partly burned coal as may be capable 
of giving off more heai if put upon the fire again. 



THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 99 

The functions or work of the lymphatics 
phatics'a" c)f the body may be regarded as similar 
i!iysteiii of Iq those of tiles, or drain-pipes, which 

l>rainag:e. ^ ^ . 

farmers so frequently lay in wet, 
swampy lands for the purpose of carrying off the 
surplus water. The water soaks into these tiles, 
which carry it off under ground, thus drying tlie 
field. Likewise, the surplus fluids which collect in 
all parts oE the body are absorbed by the lymphatics, 
the drain-pipes of the body, which unite, forming 
larger vessels, which empty into the great veins, 
and especially into the thoracic duct, with the con- 
tents of which the lymph reaches the heart. 

It is not definitely known what the 

Use of the "^ . 

Lymphatic work of the lymphatic glands is. But 
4wiantis. -^ jg probable that they renovate, or 

ico7^k over the "second-hand" and surplus material 
brought to them by the lymphatics, and that the 
lymph globules originate in them. Whether this is 
true or not, there can be no doubt that these glands 
are essential to health ; because, when they become 
hardened or inflamed, as is often the case in persons 
of a scrofulous tendency, health fails, and the patient 
grows thin and emaciated, even though his diet may 
be of the proper kind and quantity. 
_ , The ladeals, which we have considered 

The Ljacteals 

a Part of the in Connection with the absorption of 

5mp a ics. ^j^^ food from the alimentary canal, are 

a part of the lymphatic system. They constitute 

that portion which begins in the villi of the intes- 



100 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

tines. When the process of digestion is completed, 
they serve as drain-pipes^ like the lymphatics, in the 
system at large. Their special work, however, is 
that in connection with the absorption of the fatty 
food through the walls of the intestines. 

We have learned how the blood "circu- 
^^^^^^]^ lates" ; how it starts from the heart, and 

pliaties Com- ' -^ ' 

pared with after making the complete circuit, is 

vessels. " brought back io the heart again. We 

have also learned that the blood-vessels 

both give off tissue-making substances and take on 

in exchange, waste and worn-out material, which 

they carry away. In contrast with this, the lymph 

does not "circulate". It is carried toivard the 

heart, to enter the life-giving stream — the blood. 

In the lymphatic system there are, therefore, no 

vessels to correspond with arteries. Again, the 

lymphatics collect worn-out tissues, but give nothing 

in return. 

The work of the lymphatics is not con- 
other fuhc- -^ . ^ 

tions of the fined to the absorption of food from the 
ymp a ics. ijjtgg^;i;QQg ^^^^(j collecting surplus and 

waste material from the system in general. Certain 
other phenomena, all of which are of interest to us, 
are due to the absorbing power of these vessels. 
For instance, when a poisonous substance is placed 
upon the skin, the lymphatics at once (ibsorh it and 
carry it into the circulation. "It is by the action of 
the lymphatics that medicines which are now fre- 
quently simply injected under the skin, reach tho 



THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 101 

blood. Even food substances have been thrown into 
the circulafion in this way." The lymphatics of the 
luDgs take in the poison of disease and diffuse it 
throughout the system. When the appetite fails, 
duriug long-continued illness, life is sustained by 
the unconscious consumption of one's own flesh, the 
fatty and more fluid matter being absorbed by the 
lymphatics and carried into the circulation. In a 
similar manner, as we shall learn farther on, the 
poisonous nicotine of tobacco is absorbed in the 
lungs, and the system poisoned. Thus we see that 
these vessels, which are ever active, take up, indis- 
criminately, foods, poisons, medicines, or the waste 
of w^orn-out material. 

We can scarcely realize how much of 
of Healthy ^^1' health and comfort depends upon 
L-ympiiatic ^^^ active Condition of the absorbent 

Action. 

system. When we remember how many 
special glands there are in the body and what an 
enormous amount of different secretions they pro- 
duce, and that when such secretions have served 
their purpose, or have accumulated in too great 
quantity they must be drained away by the lym- 
phatics, we may understand, in a measure^ that the 
failure of the lymphatics to do their work well is a 
serious matter. Thus dropsy of the brain and 
dropsy of the heart are but a few examples of the 
consequences resulting from a failure of the lym- 
phatics to carry off secretions which, though they have 
a very important service to render, must not be 



102 



ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 



allowed to remain or accumulate after their work is 
clone. So we have an illustration of lymphatic 
service in the case of a common blister. Though a 
large amount of fluid may accumulate, so that the 
outer skin is very much raised by it, it may wholly 
disappear without coming to the surface through a 
break in the skin, because the lymphatics in such 
case, absorb the watery-like contents of the blister. 
Likewise, tumors, and many forms of skin diseases 
and eruptions are evidences of imperfect lymphatic 
action. 

OUTLINE. 



What? ■< 



Food is transferred from the digestive organs into 
the circulatory system by the process of absorp- 
tion. 

There are two distinct transfer routes or methods. 

Surplus fluids and worn-out tissues are collected 
by absorption and carried into the circulation. 
Some of the '* second-hand " material is reno- 
vated or " made over " and again sent with the 
blood through the body for use. 



Where? ■{ 
I 



Absorption takes place — In the walls of the 
stomach, 

In the intestines, 

In the tissues of the skin, 

In the cells of the lungs, 

xit the places where gland secretions accumu- 
late, and 

Wherever blood-vessels are found. 



'M 



Why? ^ To collect and transfer food and other material. 



THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM. 103 

QUESTIONS. 

What is absorption? 

How do plants illustrate the manner in which food is ab- 
sorbed? 

What is there in plants to correspond with the blood in 
animals? 

Where does food absorption begin? 

By what is this first absorption accomplished? 

By what route does the food which is absorbed from the 
stomach reach the heart? 

Where does food absorption next take place? 

What gives the lining membrane of the intestines its smooth, 
velvet-like appearance? 

How many kinds of absorbents are in the intestines? 

Describe the structure of the villi. 

What are the mesenteric veins? 

What is the portal vein? 

Trace the food absorbed by the mesenteric veins from the 
intestines to the heart. 

Where is the hepatic vein? 

Into what greater vein does it empty? 

What are the lac teals? 

Describe their work. 

Of what general system are they a part? 

Through what glands do the lacteals pass? 

Into what do they empty? 

Why are they called chyliferous vessels? 

What is chyle? 

Describe and locate the thoracic duct. 

What is its lower enlarged portion called? 

What is meant by assimilation? 

Trace a mouthful of food from the mouth to the tissue in 
the body. 

What is lymph? 

What is its origin? 

What vessels carry it? 

To what may they be compared? 

In what respects do the lymphatics differ from the blood- 
vessels of the general circulation? 



104 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY^ 

Whither is the lymph carried? 

What are the lymphatic glands? 

Why should we be careful not to touch poison ivy? 

What danger is there in breathing the air of a sick chamber? 

When a squirrel or other animal hides away to sleep all 

winter, without eating, how is life sustained? 
Why is medicine sometimes injected under the skin, and 

how is it rendered effective? 
Name all the vessels which constitute parts of the absorptive 

system. 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 



We have learned in the preceding chapter that 
some of the material of the body, when it has served 
its purpose in the structure of a certain organ or 
tissue, may be made serviceable in some other part 
or tissue, and that such second-hand material is 
gathered up and returned to the blood by the lym- 
phatics — which have been quite aptly called the 
"ragmen" of the body. There is, however, much 
waste matter which cannot be thus turned to further 
use in tissue-building. This must be regularly and 
thoroughly removed from the system in one w^ay or 
another. But even some of this waste matter, in 
the very act of separating it from the body, is made 
to do service in some of the vital processes. Thus, 
the liver secretes bile from the impure blood which 
flows through it. This bile, while it is thrown into 
the channel of the intestines, renders, as we have 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 105 

seen, an indispensable service in the final digestion 
of the food. But a large part of the worn-out matter 
of the bodv is fit for no farther use whatever, and 
must be expelled; because, if allowed to remain in 
the blood, such matter would not only be useless, 
but an actual poison in the system. 

This calls for a sewer system in the body, and 
such needed sewerage has been very well provided. 
The organs whose function it is to take 
tory Organs. ^^oTCi the blood such substances as can- 
not be utilized again for the same pur- 
pose, but which must either be changed into some 
other substance, or expelled from the system, are 
the lungs, liver, Iddneys and skin. Each of these is 
suited to take from the blood a certain kind of 
impurities, and either elaborate them into some 
usable substance , or start them in their course lead- 
ing from the body. The four organs above named, 
together with the large intestine, constitute the 
organs of the excretory system. 
_ . In studying: the disjestion of food, we 

Excretion ./ o o •> 

by tiie liarge found the last step in the process to be 
me. ^^^ separation of the chyle, or useful 
food substance, from the waste matter, or useless 
food portions. As to the chyle, we have learned 
how it is transferred from the intestines into the 
blood-vessels. But the waste matter passes on [see 
sixth chart) from the first part of the small intes- 
tines [duodenum, 4) — where its separation from the 
chyle chiefly takes place — through the middle part 



106 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

of the small intestine (jejunum, 13), on through the 
ileum^ {14:), then past what is called the iUo-caecal 
valve (15), into the ascending colon (18), and 
through the transverse colon (19) and descending 
colon (20) of the large intestine out of the body. 

We have already learned of the excre- 
b ^the^imi 8 *^^y work of the lungs, in studying the 

purification of the blood in these organs. 
The exchange which takes place in the lungs at 
every breath is very important. For the purifying, 
life-giving oxygen which is taken into the blood at 
every inhalation, the lungs unload from the blood a 
quantity of impurities at every 6;rhalation. The 
substances which are thrown out from the blood, in 
the act of its purification in the lungs, are carbon- 
dioxide, icatery vapor, and various other organic 
impurities. How are these substances formed in the 
body, and how do they get into the blood ? 

The chief excretion from the lungs is 

Carbon- , -,.,-, ... 

Dioxide. cciroon-dwxide, or, as it is more com- 

monly called, carbonic acid gas. A 
large part of the tissue of the body is composed of 
the elementary chemical substances called carbon 
and hydrogen, Now^ the oxygen carried with the 
current of the blood through the system, unites with 
the carbon of the worn-out tissues and forms this 
carbon-dioxide. This chauge takes place in the 
capillaries; so that while the arteries brought to the 
capillaries pure red blood, whose corpuscles were 
loaded down, like so many canal boats, with oxygen, 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 107 

the veins carry away from the capillaries impure and 
darker blood, in which the corpuscles carry carbon- 
dioxide instead of free oxygen, as a cargo. 

The *'carbon" and the ''oxide" in the 

Nature of 

i^arbon- name of this gas have reference to the 

loxn e. carbon and the oxygen which unite in 

its formation. The prefix ''di" in the last part of 
the name, has reference to the fact that two atoms 
or smallest chemical particles of oxygen unite with 
one atom of carbon. So when the chemist writes 
the name of this gas by what he calls a sign or sym- 
bol, he writes CO2. This symbol and name dis- 
tinguishes the gas which we are learning about from 
another very poisonous gas in which only one atom 
of oxygen unites with an atom of carbon, so that 
the chemist writes its symbol CO, and calls it 
carbon-wonoxide. This gas you have no doubt often 
seen burning with a pretty blue flame over coal 
which has been freshly put upon the fire in the 
stove. Strange that while carbon-monoxide burns, 
carbon- dioxide will promptly put out a fire. 

Carbon-dioxide will not only fail to support life, 
when inhaled, but it acts upon the body as a deadly 
poison. Its destructive nature may be illustrated in 
many ways. Since it is about half again as heavy 
as air, it is apt to settle in low places, such as pits 
and wells, in dangerous quantity. 80 it has fre- 
quently happened that men who have gone down 
into wells without first testing the air within them, 
have been suddenly overcome and fallen lifeless to 



108 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

the bottom. It is never advisable to descend into a 
well before having lowered into it, to the bottom, or 
water-level, a lighted candle. If the candle contin- 
ues to burn, it may be concluded that the well is 
sufficiently free from carbon-dioxide to be entered 
with safety. But if the candle goes out, it is sui- 
cidal to descend into the well ; for Avhere a candle will 
go out from the presence of carbon-dioxide, or for 
the want of oxygen, a man's life will go out. 

How is the watery vapor which escapes 

'from the lungs produced in the body ? 
It is formed by the union of oxygen with the hydro- 
gen of the worn-out tissues. The two substances 
unite in the proportion of two atoms of hydrogen to 
one of oxygen. The chemist symbolizes this sub- 
stance H2O, and calls it water, or watery vapor. 
Such vapor of water escapes with every out-going 
breath. Ordinarily it is not visible, but in cold 
weather it may frequently be seen escaping in the 
form of a mist from the nostrils or mouth, or collect- 
ing on the cold window-panes of a room containing 
a number of persons. It has been carefully esti- 
mated that about one or one and one-fourth pounds 
of water is daily given off with the breath of a man. 

Besides carbon-dioxide and watery 
otiier vapor as the chief and constant pro- 

the Breath, ducts of the breath, there are always 

more or less of other impurities un- 
loaded from the blood through the lungs. This 
fact is often very disagreeably proved to us by the 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 109 

offensive odor of the breath of other persons. To 
show experimentally that other substances, such as 
particles of animal matter are contained in air once 
breathed, let the contents of the lungs after a full 
inspiration be breathed into a bottle and corked up. 
The impure matter excreted with the breath will 
decompose and soon give off an offensive odor. 
Since neither carbon-dioxide nor watery vapor have 
any odor, the experiment proves the presence of 
other substances, and it is these substances, in vari- 
able kind and quantity, that give the breath a more 
or less offensive taint. 

To prove experimentally the deadly 
™^^^^^^^,^ nature of the products of the breath, 

of tlie Breath. ^ ' 

breathe into a glass jar, after having 
held the breath in the lungs for some time. If a 
lighted taper or wax candle be lowered into the jar 
containing this exhaled breath it will go out, show- 
ing that there is not enough oxygen in the air of the 
jar to sustain the life of the candle flame. Just as 
surely would the life of a man go out if he were 
placed in a vessel sufficiently large, and containing 
the same kind of exhaled breath mixture. 

We have before referred to the import- 
ance of thorough ventilation. What 
we have just learned of the poisonous character of 
the excretions of the lungs, gives us occasion again 
to refer to the subject. Air which contains four or 
five parts in a hundred of carbon -dioxide is very 
poisonous, and even a much smaller percentage of it 



110 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

is quite injurious. Besides, there are various other 
air-polluting causes. The dead, cast-off material of 
the body, which, as we shall soon learn, escapes in 
great quantity from the skin, will, if cleanliness is 
not strictly observed, and proper ventilation care- 
fully practiced, accumulate in the air of the room, 
to be inhaled by the occupants. Is it, in view of 
these facts, any w^onder that the pupils in many 
school-rooms complain of headache, dullness and 
disinclination to study, or that in crowded, poorly 
ventilated churches, the preacher seems dull and the 
sermon uninteresting, while the people of the con- 
gregation yawn, or even fall asleep under the depres- 
sing influence of the air which is so breath-poisoned 
that the very flames of the lamps are sickly and 
threaten to die? 

The secretion of bile by the liver has 
Excretion by already been mentioned. In this pro- 

the liiver. •/ ^ ^ 

duction of bile, the liver acts as a puri- 
fier of the blood. It is a well established fact, that 
in case of a diseased liver, when that organ fails 
properly to perform its work of secreting the bile, 
the substance of which thus remains in the blood, a 
disease known as jaundice appears, and if this dis- 
ease is not checked, the person dies with symptoms 
of poisoning. So the liver is both a secretory and 
an excretory organ. 

This brings us to the study of a pair of 
Excretion by orfijans which have not before been de- 

the Kidneys. & 

scribed, namely, the kidneys. These 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. Ill 

are two bean-shaped bodies, a little more than half 
as large as the closed fist. Refer to the last section 
of the body manikin, where their location in the 
back part of the abdominal cavity, — one on each 
side of the spinal column — and also their size, shape, 
color and structure are very plainly shown. These 
dark-colored glands have a very important function 
to perform. They cannot delegate their work to 
any other organ of the body, as is the case with 
some of the other glands. They alone can perform 
the work assigned them. Hence, when diseased, 
their work is not done, and sickness follows. 

The special work assigned to the kidneys 
Work of tiie ^g ^^ separate from the blood which is 

brought to them, a substance called 
urea. This is a very poisonous matter, which, if 
not removed from the body by the healthy action of 
the kidneys, will accumulate, and finally cause death. 
The whole liquid excretion of the kidneys is called 
urine. 

The renal arieries (s^) constantly 

How the ^ ^ . ^ 

Kidneys Carry to the kidneys a portion of the 

work. blood, w^iich passes through th^ capil- 

laries of the kidneys, as seen by turning back the 
first section of the right kidney of the manikin. 
The filtered blood is again collected by the veins, 
and carried by the renal vein (55), to the large 
veins leading to the heart. 

The second section of the left kidney of the mani- 
kin, shows another interesting view of the peculiar 



112 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

structure of the inner part of this organ. Into this 
inner chamber or reservoir, as shown, numerous 
pyramid-like bodies project (c). Near the points of 
these little pyramids are little openings. As the 
blood comes through the capillaries into these pyra- 
mid bodies, the urine, carrying in solution the urea, is 
strained from it and trickles through the end-pores into 
the central reservoir. From there it escapes through 
the iireiers (56), into the bladder (57), and from 
thence through the urinary channels out of the body. 
We now come to the study of the last 

Vlie Skin* 

of the great excretory organs, namely 
the sldn. Before we are prepared to understand 
how the skin performs its sewer work, we must give 
some attention to its general structure. The skin 
serves a number of important purposes. In the first 
place, it forms a protective covering for the whole 
outer body. It is interesting to observe how the 
structure of the skin is adapted to the protection of 
the parts which are variously exposed. Thus, over 
parts exposed to pressure and friction, the skin is 
thick and tough ; over parts liable to changes in size, 
it is quite elastic, and over parts which are specially 
delicate ; it is covered with a mat of hair. Thus, we 
see that it is everywhere adapted to the purpose of 
protection. 

In the second place, the skin is the general organ 
of touch. For this purpose it is abundantly supplied 
with sensitive nerves, which, in some places, are^ 
more abundant and delicate than in others. 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM, 113 

We shall also soon be prepared to understand why- 
it is that the skin is considered to be, to a great 
extent, the regulator of the heat of the body. 

Like the liver and the kidneys, the skin is both a 
secreting and an excreting organ. The proper per- 
formance of these functions, on the part of the skin, 
is quite essential to health and life as we found it to 
be in the case of the liver and the kidneys. 

The skin is a much more complicated 
®i™^*"y^. structure than one would first suppose. 

of the Skin. ^^ 

So closely and delicately are numerous 
various organs interwoven in the web of the body- 
garment, that it requires the aid of the microscope 
to help us understand how it is constructed and what 
it contains. Such a microscopic illustration of the 
structure of the skin is furnished us on the sixth 
chart, upper left-hand corner. 

First, overlying the true skin is the cidicle (a). 
Sometimes this is called the scarf-skin or epidermis. 
It seems to be intended for a special protective cov- 
ering for the real or true skin. It is this cuticle or 
outer skin which is raised by- a blister. No blood 
flows from it when it is pierced or cut, because it 
has no blood-vessels. Neither does it give us pain 
when it is torn or wounded, because it contains no 
nerves. The figure shows its real structure; for, as 
the microscope shows, it is made up of small, flat 
scales overlying each other in rows of layers like the 
shingles on a roof. These scales forming the scarf- 
skin are constantly being formed from the true skin 



114 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

below. As they are thus newly added to the under 
surface of the cuticle, they are constantly falling off 
from the outer surface. This shedding off of cuticle 
scales from the body, usually goes on quite imper- 
ceptibly. Sometimes, however, these cuticle scales 
accumulate and afterwards come off in masses. When 
this happens anywhere on the general body, it is 
called scurf. When it occurs on the head it is called 
dandruff. Another peculiarity of the cuticle is that 
over such parts of the body that are much worn, it 
grows very thick and tough. This is another of 
Nature's numerous provisions for the special protec- 
tion of endangered parts of the body. Every boy- 
knows how tender the soles of his feet are when he 
makes his first bare-foot venture out-doors in the 
spring. But Nature soon meets the new want of a 
thicker skin-soling, by accumulating a cuticle layer 
of more than double thickness and of much greater 
firmness, so that the feet soon become quite insensi- 
ble even to the roughest walk. 

As the figure at (b) shows, the lower 
complexion ^s, ^f ^^^ ^^^-^^^ ^^^^ ^ decided 

Cells. •* 

color, while the outer layers are almost 
colorless. This deeper part of the cuticle, lying next 
above the true skin, contains the coloring matter 
which determines the complexion of the person. The 
negro is black because the pigment cells — as the 
lower layer of cells in the cuticle are called — con- 
tain very dark granules. In the cuticle of the 
Indian, these pigment cells contain red or copper- 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM, 115 

colored granules. So different persons of the same 
race — as the white race, for instance — have darker 
or lighter complexions, according to the color tint of 
the under cuticle cells. The strong rays of the sun 
have the effect of darkening or "tanning" the com- 
plexion, either by causing an increase in the number 
of these color granules or by deepening their tint. 
Sometimes the pigment or coloring gathers in spots. 
These spots are called freckles. 

Close under the cuticle lies the true 
vessels ®^^^ ^^^^ ^*® wonderful variety of parts. 

The arterial system supplies it with 
blood through such a closely woven web of capilla- 
ries that one can scarcely prick the true skin any- 
where with a needle-point without drawing blood 
from a capillary. The figure shows (f) how the 
smaller blood-vessels branch out from the arteries 
and are then re-gathered to form the blood-returning 
veins. 

In a similar way nerve lines come quite 
near to the surface of the true skin, 
and end in little papillae or nerve loops specially 
fitted to be extremely sensitive to touch. Even 
through the insensible coat of the cuticle, the softest 
touch impresses these nerves sufficiently to cause 
them to carry a report of the impression to the 
brain. 

For the purpose of keeping the skin 

soft and tender to touch, a system of 

tiny oil factories is provided in its structure. These 



116 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

are called sebaceous glands (g). These glands are 
not equally distributed throughout the skin. They 
are quite abundant in the face. On the head they 
are so numerous that the oily substance which they 
secrete from the blood and throw out upon the sui- 
face is a sufficient natural pomade for the hair. 

Since the hair is really a part or modi- 

Xhe Hair. ... 

fication of the skin, it is proper to 
mention it here. The figure shows how a hair grows 
from the skin (d). The part imbedded within the 
skin is called the root, while that without is known 
as the shaft The farther details of the structure of a 
hair are shown in a separate figure under the figure 
of a section of the skin. The color of the hair 
depends on color granules in the hair-cells. The 
change of color to gray or white, in old age, is due 
to a decrease in the quantity of this hair-coloring 
matter. 

It is proper also in this connection to 
mention the nails of the fingers and 
toes as modified parts of the skin, provided for the 
special protection of the parts on which they grow. 
In structure, they are found to be cuticle cells very 
solidly packed together. The nail grows from the 
skin chiefly at its rear end and partly from below, 
so that as it grows forward it becomes harder and 
thicker, and is worn away or cut off when it pro- 
trudes too far beyond the toe or finger. 

Clusters of fat cells are also distributed 
throughout the tissue of the skin. 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 117 

These give it a peculiar softness of structure and 
add to tlie grace of outline of the general surface of 
the body. 

Numerous small muscles are distributed 

il^k ill Muscles. ., ^ i^ 1 • o o 11 

through the skm. borne or these are 
shown in the figure on the chart. They are some- 
times called hair -muscles, probably because in some 
animals they seem to serve to make the hair, bristles or 
feathers, "stand on end." The horse makes good 
use of these muscles when he shakes his skin to 
drive off the flies. Some conditions, like cold air or 
intense fear, rouse these muscles to strong contrac- 
tion, so that the skin is raised up in numerous little 
points called ''goose pimples." 

Having now learned about the general 
b^the^skin structure of the skin, we are prepared 

to inquire how it performs its impor- 
tant excretory work. The amount of waste matter 
which the skin carries out from the body is enor- 
mous. The matter which escapes from the skin 
pores is called persjnration. Observe, in the figure, 
numerous ducts or canals, opening out upon the sur- 
face. These are called the perspiratory ducts. They 
end in the skin in little coils. These are called 
perspiratory glands (h). Just as the bile is filtered 
from the blood by the liver, and the urine by the 
kidneys, so the perspiration or sweat is filtered or 
secreted from the blood by the perspiratory glands 
and carried to the surface by the perspiratory ducts. 
These sweat-glands and tubes are much more numer- 



118 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

ous in some parts than in others. The entire num- 
ber on the whole body is supposed to be about two 
and one-half millions, and their total length, if 
they were placed in line, about three miles! 

Usually, the perspiration which escapes 

Perspiration. ^^^^ *^^ ^^"^ P^^^^ passes off as an 
invisible vapor; not, however, without 
leaving on the surface of the body more or less of a 
deposit of matter which does not evaporate with the 
liquid portion of the perspiration. This ordinary 
perspiration is always going on, even in the coldest 
weather. Since it is usually unobserved, it is often 
called insensible perspiration. It is always abso- 
lutely essential to health and comfort. 

When the amount of perspiration 

J^ii^^eat or ^^ /^ 

Sensible thrown off through the skin is much 

Perspiration. • -i p • 

increased, as irom vigorous exercise, or 
exposure to great heat, it is not evaporated from the 
skin surface as fast as it is produced, but collects in 
drops, or even little streams, on the surface of the 
body. This is called sensible perspiration^ or more 
commonly, siveat 

^ It has been estimated that on an aver- 

C^uantity of 

Skin age, about two pounds of waste matter 

xcre ion. ^^ carried out through the perspiratory 
tubes each day. About ninety-nine parts out of one 
hundred, of this matter, is water. This, as already 
stated, passes off as vapor. The residue of one per 
cent, is left behind, on the surface of the skin, to 
escape therefrom as invisible dust, or to mingle with 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 119 

the material of the clothing, or to be washed away 
in the bathing of the body. 

By the evaporation of the watery portion of the 
perspiration from the surface of the skin, the heat of 
the body is much reduced. This is on account of the 
well-known fact that when a liquid is changed into a 
vapor, it takes in much heat from surrounding objects. 
On this principle we sprinkle a room, on a hot summer 
day, to cool it. The sprinkled water passes into 
invisible vapor, and in so doing takes from the air 
in the room much of its heat, thus making it much 
more comfortable. We scarcely realize how much 
comfort we enjoy from the passing off of the perspi- 
ration of the body into vapor. When from any 
cause this process is arrested, a feverish heat and 
extreme discomfort is soon experienced. It is this 
condition w^hich frequently leads people to say that 
if they could sweat more they would feel better. 
Thus the skin is an important regulator of the heat 
of the body. 

What we have just learned about the 

tf^l 4^ fl Til 1 Tl tf> fttt 

excretory work of the skin, certainly 
strongly urges the necessity of bodily cleanliness. 
It shows that frequent bathing of the body, as well 
as frequent change of clothing, are absolutely neces- 
sary to health ; for we must not forget that what is 
once expelled from the body as an excretion, is 
afterwards a poison. This fact, in connection with 
what we have learned of the absorbing power of the 
skin, through its numerous lymphatics, is sufficient 



120 



ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 



Where? ^ 



explanation of the well-known truth that uncleanli- 
ness of the body is usually followed by disease and 
premature death. 

OTJTI.IKE. 

r The organs of the excretory system are the 
What? < lai^ge intestine, the lungs, the liver, the 
I kidneys and the skin. 

The large intestine — in the lower abdomen. 
The lungs — in the chest. 

The liver— over, and to the right of the stomach. 
The kidneys— in the back part of the abdominal 

cavity, one on each side of the spinal columu. 
The skin — covering the body. 
The large intestine— to carry from the body the 

useless products of digestion. 
TheluDgs — to separate carbon-dioxide, watery 

vapor and other impurities from the venous 

blood. 
Why? -; The liver — to secrete bile from impure abdom- 
inal blood. 
The kidneys— to filter urine from the blood. 
The skin — to collect impurities from the blood 

and carry them out through the perspiratory 

ducts. 

QUESTIONS. 

What different kinds of waste matter have we learned about? 
What must promptly be done with such waste matter as is 

entirely unfit for any farther use in the body? 
What is meant by excretion? 
What are the organs of the excretory system? 
By which of these organs is the useless part of the food 

carried out of the body? 
What is the upper or first part of the small intestine called? 
The middle part? The lower part? 
What are the three divisions of the large intestine? 



THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 121 

What substances do the luDgs expel from the body? 

Tell what you can about carbon-dioxide. 

What proof is there that watery vapor escapee with the 

breath? 
How can it be proved that other organic impurities escape 

from the lungs? 
How can the deadly character of air which has been once 

breathed be shown? 
What important hygienic precept do these facts suggest? 
What causes the feeling of dullness and sleepiness in a 

school-room or church which is poorly ventilated? 
What makes the lights grow dim in such a place? 
What substance does the liver separate from the blood? 
What is the consequence when the liver fails to do this work 

properly? 
Why is the liver said to be both a secretory and an excretory 

organ? 
Where are the kidneys located? 
What excretory work do they perform? 
What tubes connect the kidneys with the bladder? 
Tell what you have learned of the different purposes of the 

skin. 
What is the outer skiji called? 
Why can it be cut or torn without pain? 
What does the microscope reveal about its structure? 
What is meant by pigment or complexion cells? 
What is meant by " scurf " and " dandruff " ? 
What causes the " tanning '* of the skin? 
What is the cause of " freckles " ? 
What proof have we that the skin is well supplied with 

blood-vessels? 
What makes the skin so very sensitive to touch? 
What provision is made for keeping the skin soft and smooth? 
What are these oil-glands called? 
What can you say of the structure of a hair? 
On what does the color of the hair depend? 
Tell what you can of the structure and growth of a finger 

nail. 
Are muscles found in the skin? 



122 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

What do you know about their use and action? 

What is the excretion of the skin called? 

What is the work of the perspiratory glands? 

What is the work of the perspiratory ducts? 

What is the difference between insensible and sensible per- 
spiration? 

How much matter passes daily from the body through the 
perspiratory tubes? 

How does the perspiration escape from the surface of the skin ? 

Does it all evaporate? 

What becomes of the residue? 

What is the effect of the evaporation of the sweat on the 
temperature of the body? 

Can you state the principle upon which this effect depends? 

What do the facts learned about the excretion of the skin 
suggest in reference to cleanliness? 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 



The principal organs of the body, and 
Value of a ^^^ work or functions of each, are now 

sound Body. ' 

quite familiar to us. Let us now con- 
sider briefly the necessity of guarding against any- 
thing and everything which would in any way 
impair the health of these organs, or interfere with 
them in the performance of their work. 

If a grain of sand should find its way into the eye, 
inflammation would at once result; sight, the func- 
tion of the eye would be interrupted. If, on account 
of some disease, the muscles of the heart should 
cease to contract and expand with their ordinary 
regularity, or stop their action entirely, the blood 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 123 

would cease to circulate and life would end. Thus, 
the well-being of the body, yea, life itself, depends 
upon the healthy action of the various organs which 
are our servants in our body-house. 

Does it not seem strange, then, that so 
Bod*'^^^**^^ many thousands should still persist in 

abusing their bodies, which are made 
"in the image of their Creator?" Yet there are such 
who wilfully take into their system that which not 
only interferes with the healthy action of their 
bodily organs, but leads to certain death. More 
than this; they injure not only their bodies, but 
destroy their mental faculties, dethrone reason, 
bring misery and woe upon their families, and fail 
to accomplish life's ends. One of the most com- 
mon wrongs agaiust the body, producing such dis- 
astrous results , is the use of strong drink. 

Under the name of strong drink are 
stron *i>rink «i^cluded all liquids which contain 

alcohol in larger or smaller quantity. 
Such liquids will, when taken into the system, affect, 
more or less, all the organs and tissues of the body ; 
and if the quantity or proportion of alcohol which 
they contain is sufficient, they will cause what is 
called drunkenness or intoxication. 

Alcohol is a liquid so clear and color- 
ALcoiioi^^ less, that in appearance it cannot be 

distinguished from water. It has a 
strong odor, and a hot, biting taste. It is very inflam- 
mable. This may be easily observed by placing a 



124 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

small quantity in a shallow dish and applying a 
burning match, when it will quickly flash with a 
pale blue flame. Since it produces an intense heat, 
while it burns without smoke, it is very useful in 
the arts. It is much lighter than water, and boils, 
or passes into vapor, at a much lower degree of heat. 
Since its freezing point is much lower than any 
degree of cold which the atmosphere is anywhere 
liable to reach, it is used in thermometers where 
mercury would freeze. Alcohol is a powerful anti- 
septic, which means that it has such an effect on 
bodies which are subject to decay, as to prevent 
such a change. On this account it is much used 
for the preservation of animal bodies. 

Another important property of alcohol is its water- 
absorbing power. It will take away water from any 
substance containing it. If the white of an Qgg.^ 
which is called albumen, be put in a cup, and 
alcohol be poured on it, the albumen will soon be- 
come white, hard and tough, as if cooked. In all 
these, and many other particulars, alcohol differs 
very much from w^ater, which it so much resembles 
in appearance. 

Alcohol can be made from many kinds 
^onrces of £ fruits and from most kinds of OTain. 

Alcoliol. ^ 

But this is because such fruits and grains 
contain the substance from which alcohol directly 
comes. Really, alcohol is made from sugar, and the 
juices of nearly all fruits contain the sugar from 
which it may be produced. So, nearly all of the 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY, 125 

grains, as wheat, rye, barley, corn and rice, contain 
much sfarch. For example, the corn-starch which is 
sold by the grocer, is made from corn. But the 
starch of these grains is, under certain circumstances, 
easily changed into sugar. This is sufficient to 
explain why so many fruits and grains are sources 
of alcohol. 

The change from sugar to alcohol is 
*o^\Tcohoi^^ called a chemical chcmge, because the 

chemical elements which make up a 
sugar molecule are separated so as to make two 
substcmces^ each of which is altogether different from 
sugar. In other words, under favorable conditions, 
a molecule of sugar breaks up into alcohol and car- 
bon-dioxide. Alcohol is a liquid. Carbon-dioxide 
is a gas — the very gas we have learned about before, 
as being one of the products of the breath as it 
escapes from the lungs. The process of change 
from sugar to alcohol is called fermentation. 

To cause the breaking up of fruit sugar 
Change into alcohol and carbon-dioxide, as just 

Produced? explained, requires the presence and 
effect of what is called a ferment. Such a ferment is 
shown by the microscope to be composed of infinitely 
small germs or plantlets. Sometimes, as in the case 
of the ferment which is called yeast, these germs 
occur in masses, but besides such ferment masses, 
there are millions of ferment germs constantly float- 
ing in the air. The fact that fruit juices will under- 
go the change we have described apparently without 



126 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

the presence of smj ferment, was long considered as 
quite mysterious, and led to the use of the name 
'^ sponianeous fermeniaiion,'''' which implied that 
such fermentation took place without the presence 
or influence of anything outside of the fruit juice 
which was changing. But the sharp eye of the 
microscope has discovered the real cause, namely, 
the invisible ferment germs which float in the air. 
These germs multiply rapidly in any substance in 
which they have started fermentation, and without 
their presence, or the presence of some mass fer- 
ment, fruit juices will remain unchanged an indef- 
inite length of time. 

There are many kinds of wines, such 

HoAv the _ , ^ . 

Urines are as cherry wine, currant wine, goose- 
Made, berry wine and rhubarb wine. Fer- 
mented cider, or, as it is commonly called, hard 
cider, is really apple wine. These wines are all 
made from the juices of the fruits after which they 
are named, by simple fermentation. Such fruits all 
contain sugar dissolved in their jaices. When any 
of these juices, as currant juice, for example, is set 
in a warm place, freely exposed to the air, ferment 
germs soon start the change by which the sugar is 
converted into alcohol and carbon-dioxide. The 
carbon-dioxide being a gas, passes off in bubbles, 
and in so doing, makes the liquid froth. But the 
alcohol remains in the juice, which now tastes 
strong instead of sweet, and is called currant wine. 
By a similar process of fermentation all the wines 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 127 

are produced. When the process is to be hastened, 
a special mass ferment is added to the juice. All 
Avines contain alcohol. 

The drinks of the beer family, including 
Beers are common beer, ale and porter, are made 
Made. j^y ^ process called brewing. Brewing 

includes several steps which precede actual fermen- 
tation. Beer is chiefly made from barley, which, 
like other grains, contains starch. This starch of 
the barley grain is the starting point in beer making. 
It must be changed into sugar. This is done by 
causing the grain to '' sprout.'' In sprouting, the 
starch of the seed is changed into sugar, which 
forms the first food of the growing germ. If you 
will take from the ground a pea or a pumpkin seed 
which is just '^sprouting" and chew it, you will be 
convinced that there has been sugar-making going 
on in the seed. So the brewer exposes a large 
quantity of moistened barley to artificial heat, which 
soon causes the grain to sprout. When the change 
in the seed has progressed to the point of the great- 
est sweetness, which is well understood by the 
brewer, the grain is roasted, to kill the germ and 
stop the growth. If pale ale is to be made, the 
grain is but lightly roasted. For beer, it is quite 
browned, and for porter it is even charred. So far, 
this process is called malting. 

Next the malted barley is crushed or ''mashed" 
between heavy iron rollers. Then the mass is mixed 
in large vats with warm water. After some soaking, 



128 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

the liquid portion is drained oflp from the mass. 
This liquid is now called ''woriy 

Now comes the flavoring process. The ''wort" is 
mixed with hops or hop juice, and then thoroughly 
boiled. This gives it a bitter beer flavor. 

All these steps have been preparatory to the fer- 
mentation process. Yeast is now added as a ferment, 
and the sugar change rapidly follows. The beer is 
bottled or kegged while the fermentation is still 
going on. By this means some of the carbon-diox- 
ide which would otherwise escape, is held under 
great pressure in the bottle or keg. This explains 
the foaming or frothing of the beer when it is tapped 
from the keg. All the beers contain alcohol. 

All the wines and beers are mild liquors 
stronj^er when Compared with such drinks as 

iLiauors are brandy, whiskey, rum and gin. This is 
because the last-named liquors contain 
a much larger proportion of alcohol. The process of 
producing them is called distillation. This depends 
upon the fact that alcohol passes from the liquid in- 
to the vapor state under much less heat than water 
does ; consequently the alcohol may be easily separ- 
ated from any mixture which contains it, by applying 
heat. As the alcohol passes off in vapor form it is 
led from the heated vessel through a spiral tube. 
This coil is surrounded with cold water, which makes 
the alcohol vapor condense to the liquid form, and 
flow from the tube into a receiving vessel. To get 
perfectly pure alcohol requires repeated distillations, 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY, 129 

and the use of certain substances which take from it 
the last traces of water. 

* 'Brandy is distilled from the wines. Whiskey is 
distilled from fermented grains or potatoes. Eum 
is produced by distilling molasses. Gin differs from 
whiskey only in being flavored with juniper berries. 
The flavor qualities of these strong drinks come from 
the substances from which, or with which, they are 
distilled." 

Brandy, rum, whisky and gin, all con- 
IlZhoT^n ""^^^^^^ nearly fifty per cent, of alcohol. 
Various Tliis explains why so small a quantity 

of these liquors will quickly make a 
man drunk. While the wines and beers contain a 
much smaller proportion of alcohol, their very alco- 
holic mildness makes tliem dangerous. Since their 
effect on the body, when first used, is not so severe as 
a drink of whiskey would be, their use is more likely 
to be repeated, and thus the habit of drink is 
stealthily but surely fastening itself upon the victim. 
From beer to wine and from wine to whiskey, the 
steps are easily and almost surely taken. Whatever 
may have been the liquor which was drunk, the effect 
is in every case the effect of the alcohol which it 
contains. Hence Dr. Richardson says: ''In what- 
ever form it enters, whether as spirit, wine or ale, 
matters little when its specific influence is kept 
steadily in view. To say this man only drinks ale, 
that man only drinks wine, while a third drinks 
spirits, is merely to say, when the apology is un- 



130 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

clothed, that all drink the same danger." In proof 
that alcohol is a universal poison to animal life, the 
same writer says: "There is no animal that may 
not be affected by alcohol. At all events, I know of 
none. Some animals will swallow without injury 
substances that would be poison to man. A pigeon 
will take, without showing the slightest symptom, 
as much opium as would kill several men. A goat 
will swallow, without injury, a quantity of tobacco 
which would kill several men. A rabbit will swallow, 
without injury, a dose of belladonna that would kill 
several men. But neither the pigeon, nor the goat, 
nor the rabbit can swallow alcohol without being 
influenced by it much in the same manner as a man 
would be." 

Aciuiteration I* ^^ ^^H important to learn, here, that 
ofLiiquors. an unscrupulous desire for greater 
profits has led to the manufacture of so-called wines, 
beers and stronger liquors, which are only base imi- 
tations or adulterations. Drugs of various kinds are 
used to produce the imitated effects of color, sparkle 
and flavor. Thus the harmful effects of rank poisons 
are added to the injury done by the alcohol which 
such liquors contain. 

EFFECTS OF AliCOHOIi ON THE MUSCLES. 

Not one of the great systems and organs of the 
body is proof against the effects of alcohol. Every 
organ and every kind of body tissue is more or less 
seriously injured by its use. The belief that alcohol 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 131 

gives vigor and strength to the muscles has long 
been entertained by many people. This is a great 
delusion which has numbered its victims by mill- 
ions. The brief spell o£ excitement and apparent 
muscular vigor which follows the drinking of an 
alcoholic liquor, has been mistaken for strength 
derived from the alcohol. Really, it is the fitful 
reaction of the body in its effort to resist the effects 
of the intruding poison. It is a strong protest of 
nature against such intrusion. Instead of strength 
being imparted to the muscular system, as an effect 
of alcohol, it is now proved beyond doubt that 
strength is lost every time that alcohol enters the 
system. In every person the muscular system has 
a certain degree of elasticity, or vigor of contraction. 
A high degree of muscular elasticity or ''spring" is 
strength, A low degree of the power of contraction 
is iveakness. It has been shown by the most 
scientific experiments, performed by the most com- 
petent professional men, that the elasticity of the 
muscles is very much weakened by alcohol. One 
needs but observe the movements and work of a 
drinking man to be convinced of this truth. Such 
a man is unfit for any kind of work requiring strong 
and well-sustained muscular effort. Employers of 
laboring men understand this fact so well that they 
will refuse to employ persons who have been more or 
less muscularly " unstrung " by strong drink. 

Alcohol has another directly destructive effect 
upon the muscles. It produces what is called ''fatty 



132 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

degeneration,'^'' Fat forms a very important part of 
the structures of the body, and is distributed in 
variable quantity throughout the different parts of 
the system. Besides forming a soft padding to the 
body, it really constitutes a reserve store of nourish- 
ment on which the body is fed when other food is 
wanting or cannot be eaten. All such fat, laid up 
in proper places and in proper quantity, is called 
normal fat It is so called to distinguish it from fat 
which often accumulates as a consequence of disease. 
Muscle fiber, and various other tissues of the body, 
do, under certain conditions, lose their structure and 
change into fat-cells. This is called '' fatty degener- 
ation." This is very apt to set in as a result of the use 
of alcoholic drink — especially beer. It is most likely 
to occur in the muscles of the heart, kidneys and 
other prominent organs, as we shall see farther on. 
The bloated appearance of many drinking persons 
has been mistaken by many as evidence of an abund- 
ance of muscle and vigor of body. None but the 
ignorant can longer be deluded with this idea; for 
any ordinarily intelligent observer must know that 
fat persons, as a rule, are weak in proportion to their 
fatness. This is always true when such fatness is 
an accumulation of the fat of degenerated tissue, 
brought on by the use of strong drink. 

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

We have learned how extremely delicate the 
structure of the organs of the nervous system is. 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY, 133 

We have also learned that the derangement of the 
organs of this important system throws all the other 
organs and systems into confusion, and produces 
effects ranging from discomfort to disease and death. 
So after what we have learned of the nature of 
alcohol, we may well suspect that its effect on the 
delicate tissue of the nerves and nervous organs 
must be disastrous. 

One of the first effects of the alcohol 

How docH , . , . . , . 

Alcohol aiTect which IS Contained m the strong drink 
the Brain? which has been swallowed, is to weaken 
the small blood-vessels which distribute the blood to 
all parts of the body. Ordinarily, these small blood- 
vessels have the powder to resist a harmful increase 
in the flow of blood through them. But alcohol 
seems to partially paralyze them so that they lose 
the power to prevent an excessive blood-flow. Now, 
since the brain is very abundantly provided with 
blood-vessels, it is one of the first organs to suffer 
from alcohol. It becomes, as it were, flooded with 
blood. This often happens to such an extent as to 
produce apoplexy or brain paralysis. 

Though these more serious results do 
Excif^ment ^^*' ^^^ays foUow, alcohol always pro- 
duces a sufficient rush of blood to the 
brain to throw it into excited, unnatural action. The 
brain, in turn, goads the organs which serve it into 
excited activity. So the eyes flash and roll wildly. 
The heart, sympathizing with the brain, throbs vio- 
lently, thus doubling the first disturbing cause, by 



134 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

sending still more blood brainward. The mind is 
exceedingly active. All the movements of the body 
become more rapid and unsteady. The circulatory 
system, the respiratory system and the digestive 
system, are all partners with the nervous system in 
the wild spell of excitement under the whip and spur 
of alcohol. 

After the excited condition just de- 
Alcoholic scribed, a state of exhaustion or depres- 

I>epression. ' . . 

sion always follows. This is because 
the effect of the alcohol on the blood-vessels gradu- 
ally weakens. The wild beating of the heart gradu- 
ally subsides and the flush of the face dies away. 
But, like a jaded horse, the heart now scarcely 
measures up to its usual work, so that the brain, 
instead of being crowded with blood, now scarcely 
gets a sufficient supply. So the mind settles into a 
condition of dullness, and all the organs of the body 
are drowsy and depressed. 

A person may pass through the physi- 
cal excitement and the consequent 
depression resulting from taking strong drink, with- 
out really having been ''drunk." Such a condition 
which just stops short of actual drunkenness is popu- 
larly spoken of as being ''under the influence of 
liquor." When a man is drunk his condition is 
manifested by certain physiological derangements 
which are the direct effects of the alcohol contained 
in the drink he has swallowed. Not only has his 
brain been whipped up into a state of confusion, but 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY, 135 

the spinal cord has also become disturbed. So 
gradually the nerves which go out from the spinal 
cord lose their control over the muscles to which 
ihey go. First the nerve which goes to the lower 
lip and tongue fails properly to do its work. So the 
man stutters. Soon the nerves which control the 
muscles of the lower limbs fail to direct them. So 
the man shambles and staggers. By and by, the 
nerves fail to control the muscles of the eye. Squint- 
ing is the consequence. While this physical 
derangement exists, the mind is no less deranged, 
and the strongest passions of the man's nature, 
which, when sober, he is able to control, are now 
unchained and exhibited. 

What do people mean when they say 
that a man is ''dead drunk?" The 
condition which these words very aptly describe is 
the very next door to death. The victim is now 
insensible. Every organ has now yielded to the 
terrible strain of the drunken condition, and general 
prostration has set in. The man is apparently 
asleep. But it is not the sleep of health. It is a 
drunken stupor in which he is practically deaf, 
blind and insensible. Nearlv the whole nervous 
system has suspended its operations, but fortunately 
not quite all, for the nerves. which control the man's 
breathing and the beating of his heart, bravely and 
patiently hold out against the power of the tyrant 
that has invaded the body. So the man still 
breathes and his heart still beats; but that is all 



136 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

that separates him from death, until the flickering 
lamp of his life gradually recovers its burning. 

Sometimes the drunkard's course, from 
Ti^emtn^ the cup to the grave, leads him by the way 

of a terrible condition which is properly 
called drunken insanity or delirium tremens. It is 
usually supposed that this condition is reached only 
after years of dissipation and drunkenness. Ordi- 
narily, this is true. But reliable medical authorities 
tell us that persons of a particularly nervous disposi- 
tion are sometimes attacked by this terrible malady 
when but small quantities of intoxicants are taken. 
Those who indulge in strong drink are never abso- 
lutely safe. It may attack them at any time. 

The victim of delirium tremens is in terrible 
fear and anxiety. His mind is so completely dis- 
turbed, and his imagination so thoroughly aroused, 
as to cause him to think his best friends enemies, 
who would do him harm. He sees horrible sights, 
and hears noises which exceedingly alarm him. In 
his awful condition he raves and tears, cutting and 
biting himself like a madman. Not unfrequently, 
the victim dies under the spell, and thus escapes 
from his agony. Oh, that human beings should so 
abuse themselves as to bring themselves into such 
a condition! 

Medical authorities tell us that after 
Brain's the death of a hard drinker, more 

structure. alcohol is found in the tissues of the 
various parts of the nervous system than in any other 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 137 

part of the body. It has been found in yufficient 
quantity in the brain to distill it from the tissue of 
that organ. Its abundance in the nervous tissue is 
probably due to the amount of water which the 
nerve tissue contains, and for which alcohol has a 
remarkable greed. Alcohol actually changes brain 
substance by its absorption of water. As we have 
learned before, if alcohol is poured into a cup con- 
taining the white of an egg, it will harden or coagu- 
late it. The tissue of the brain is similarly affected 
and made less sensitive. 

Sometimes the effect of alcohol upon 

Alcoholic II- • o -IP* 1 

{Softening of the brain maniiests itself m another 
the Bram. manner of degeneration of its tissue. 
When fat accumulates in the brain, from what we 
have learned to call "fatty degeneration," the result 
is known as alcoholic softening. This change of the 
brain's structure, under the influence of alcohol, is 
shown near the top of the ninth chart, where the 
left-hand figure represents the brain in health, while 
the middle figure shows the alcoholic effects on its 
internal structure. The right-hand figure shows 
the terribly congested (blood-flooded) and inflamed 
condition of the brain of a victim of delirium tremens. 
The same effect which alcohol produces 
Effects on the ^^ ^j^^ ^^^^j^ -^ noticed in the nerves. 

Serves. 

This effect is also illustrated on the 

chart [near middle of left side). The alcohol takes 
up the moisture in the nerve lines, leaving them 
more or less incapable of transmitting impressions. 



138 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

There is on record an account of a man, who, in a 
drunken stupor, burned his foot almost to a crisp 
without becoming conscious enough to remove it 
from tiie camp-fire into which he had unconsciously 
placed it. His nerves were so thoroughly paralyzed 
by alcohol, as to fail to transmit impressions to the 
brain, even if that organ had been in a fit condition 
to receive the intelligence, 

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE CIRCTJLATION. 

Alcohol, when swallowed, quickly finds its way 
into the circulation through its absorption by the 
roots of the gastric vein in the walls of the stomach. 
It soon reaches the smallest blood-vessels numer- 
ously distributed near the surface of the body. Its 
effect on the small blood-vessels, as we have seen, is 
to paralyze or relax their coats or walls. The result 
is that in this limp condition, the blood flows 
through them at a greatly increased rate. In con- 
sequence of this, the surface becomes warm and the 
flush of color comes to the skin from the presence 
of the excited scarlet flood. The surface heat thus 
produced led to the delusion that alcohol is a heat 
producer. But really it causes a loss of bodily 
warmth ; for the heat which comes to the surface is 
radiated away and lost to the body, and there is no 
increase in the production of heat within to make 
good this loss. So, upon the whole, the temperature 
of the body is reduced by alcohol. This explains 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 139 

why drinking men generally complain of chilliness 

after the stage of alcoholic excitement has passed. 

The blood-pumpins: action of the heart 
Kftect on , r r t> 

the Heart's is due to the Contraction and relaxation 
c ion. ^^ .j.^ muscles. But it is more or less 

regulated by a certain degree of resistance which the 
small blood-vessels offer to the flow of the blood 
through them. In other words, the firmness of the 
walls of the small blood-vessels acts as a sort of a 
brake on the heart's action. But we have seen how 
alcohol weakens these blood-vessels so that they are 
relaxed and the blood rushes through them with 
unusual velocity and in unusual quantity. The con- 
sequence is that the heart beats more rapidly and 
with greater force. Thus the strain upon the heart 
is greatly increased, while the intervals of rest 
between the beats is diminished, which certainly is 
very injurious to that important organ. 

This quickening of the heart's action after taking 
drink, led to the notion that alcohol is a siimulant. 
This is also a delusion. It has been thoroughly 
proved by the most competent experimenters that 
after such a temporary fit of alcoholic excitement, 
the heart is always more or less enfeebled. So 
really alcohol is a narcotic; that is, its stupefying 
effect much exceeds the temporary exhilaration which 
it at first produces. 

The heart is especially liable to ''fatty 

£ft'eet on the _ . ,, . n n i 

Heart's degeneration, especially from the use 

structure. ^£ ^^^^^ Thereby the heart is not only 



140 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

weakened, but it is often completely fettered by a 
fatty coat gathering about it, which is known as 
fatty accumulation. The chart represents such a fat- 
encumbered heart. If the use of alcohol is con- 
tinned, the heart will finally succumb; its fibers will 
become relaxed ; its cavities will become enlarged ; 
it will entirely lose its power to contract, and death 
will result from paralysis or ''failure" of the heart. 
The muscular relaxation of the heart from alcohol 
is shown in the second heart figure on the chart 
[from the left). Sometimes the heart continues its 
efforts to expel the blood, even Avhen the cavities 
have increased their capacity, and the walls have 
become thin and weak. Alcoholic rupture — that is, 
a breaking of the heart wall, as shown in the third 
and fourth heart figures — is then likely to occur. 
This, of course, means instant death. 

As the use of strong drink is continued, 

Effect on tlie i i . , p . i • i i • 

Structure the structure or the veins and arteries 
of the Blood- becomes more or less permanently 

Cliannels. ^ ^ •^ 

changed (see figure, 'Mlcohol on Veins 
and Arteries"). The blood-shot eye and the redness 
of the drunkard's face are, as we have seen, caused 
by the crowded blood in the capillaries, under alco- 
holic excitement. When this surface inflammation 
occurs too of ten, it finally results in permanent capil- 
lary paralysis. This paralysis may occur quite 
generally over the body. Usually, however, it is 
more or less local, and seems specially apt to appear 
on the ''toper's nose," as if nature were disposed to 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 141 

write the evidence of the alcoholic outrage on the 
body in as prominent a place as possible. 

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON THE RESPIRATION. 

We naturally conclude that the delicate 
^imgl.''" *'*^ structure of the lungs renders them 

liable to harm from alcohol as it passes 
with the blood through these organs. This conclu- 
sion has been abundantly verified as correct- In 
consequence of the damage done to the structure of 
the air-cells by alcohol, the absorption of oxygen /or 
the blood, and the separation of carbon -dioxide /rom 
the blood is not fully accomplished. Dr. Richardson 
says: "I found by experiment, that in presence of 
alcohol in the blood, the process of absorption of 
oxygen was directly checked, and that even so minute 
a quantity as one part of alcohol in five hundred of 
blood proved an obstacle to the perfect reception of 
oxygen by the blood." 

The consequence of such an imperfect 

Effect on the -t- pi i- i 

Kiooci oxidation or the blood is not only a 

corpuscles, j^^g ^f ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^j^^ l^^j^^ organs, 

but even the red corpuscles of the blood are changed 
and distorted in size and shape, losing their round- 
ness and becoming angular, on which account they 
meet with obstruction in the small capillaries. Thus 
the blood supply to any part is both deteriorated in 
quality and diminished in quantity. 

Farthermore, the muscles which are 
Breathing cliiefly Concerned in breathing, like all 
muscles. other muscles, are weakened by alco- 



142 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

hoi. Sometimes they become affected by alcoholic 
fatty degeneration, especially in beer drinkers. To 
the extent of such effect on these breathing muscles, 
the blood-purifying process is hindered, and breath- 
ing becomes difficult. Many drinking men complain 
of ''shortness of breath." This is due to an alco- 
holic crippling of their respiratory muscles. 

EFFECTS OF ALOOHOL ON THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

The inner coat of the stomach is a very 
stoma^cu"* ***^ delicate mucous lining upon whose 

healthy condition the production of one 
of the most important digestive substances — the gas- 
tric juice-— depends. It is a well-known fact that as 
soon as strong drink has been swallowed, the alcohol 
thereof begins its attack on this tender stomach lining 
by absorbing some of the water which is contained in 
its structure. This at once impairs the action of 
the gastric glands which lie in this coat, and whose 
work it is to secrete a proper portion of gastric juice 
for the complete performance of stomach digestion 
or chymification. A celebrated English physician 
has made the most conclusive experiments on this 
point. By exposing minced beef in bottles to the 
separate action of gastric juice and ivate7% gastric 
juice and alcohol, and gastric juice and ale, he found, 
after a time, that while the beef which was mixed 
with gastric juice and water was properly affected 
and changed, that which was placed in the bottles 
containing gastric juice and alcohol or ale, was not 
at all being changed or digested. 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 143 

Such interruptions of the digestive proces# and 
enfeeblement of the stomach's action, when fre- 
quently occurring, must seriously and permanently 
impair that organ, upon whose proper action so much 
of our physical comfort, and we may say, our per- 
sonal happiness, depends. The very common com- 
plaint of dyspepsia, among persons who use strong 
drink, is directly traceable to the effect of alcohol 
which has just been described. 

The inner coat of the stomach is so abundantly 
supplied with capillary blood-vessels that the whole 
surface has a rosy tint. This is nicely shown in the 
first figure of the seventh chart. The liver naturally 
lies over the stomach, but in this figure it is repre- 
sented as turned up, to show the appearance of a 

healthv stomach. 

•/ 

If alcohol were taken in an undiluted 

Inflammation. „ .. ,t . ,, ., ., 

rorm it would seriously burn the mouth 
and throat. The stomach would suffer in a similar 
way. But in its most^liluted form it has an irritat- 
ing effect on all the lining membranes with which 
it comes in contact. Inflammation tells the story of , 
the unnatural condition of things. Such inflammation 
means unnatural heat, which is followed by unnatural 
thirst, which is the probable reason for the fact that 
the more liquor a man drinks the more he wants. 

The second stomach figure shows the early stages 
of alcoholic inflammation. It is true to life, being 
the picture of the stomach of a man who was a 
"moderate drinker." 



14:4 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

^ At a more advanced stage of the drink- 

ing habit, congestion, or permanent 
blood-crowding of the stomach sets in, as shown in 
the figure at the bottom of the chart. The blood 
vessels are very much expanded, and seem to have 
lost their power to contract sufficiently to resist the 
flood of blood brought to them. 

By and by, if the terrible offense against 

Ulceration. xu u j • 4.- j i l- £ ^ 

the body is continued, ulceration fol- 
lows. Ulcer sores form within, and even the walls 
of the stomach sometimes become riddled with ulcer- 
ous holes. Such a destruction of the stomach is 
^^presented in the figure on the eighth chart. The 
burned and chocolate-colored condition of a stomach 
in the last stages of delirium tremens is shown in 
the second figure, which speaks for itself. 

The same inflaming and ulcerating effects are also 
produced by alcohol in the intestines, as the figures 
on the chart show. 

The faithful servant of the body, the 
sure ' stomach, tries, fi^om the first, to adapt 

Destruction, j^g^jf ^^ |-}^q derangements caused by the 
use of alcohol as a beverage. Just as the cuticle of 
the hand thickens and hardens, when we use an ax 
or shovel, so the stomach, if it is constantly irritated 
by the presence of alcohol, becomes thick, tough and 
unnatural, and, consequently becomes better adapted 
for the purpose of a whiskey jug, but less for the 
purpose for which it was intended — to digest food. 
The blood-vessels of the stomach, having been 



ALCOHOL AND THE BODY. 145 

stretched to their utmost, their di Creased walls give 
way and ugly ulcers are formed, which cause great 
suffering. Unable longer to accommodate itself to 
the condition of tilings, th-e stomach gives up in 
despair. It can no longer retain, and much less, 
digest food. Pain and disease are now all that 
remain to the victim rwatil death eomes to his 
relief. 

How small and seemingly in-significaiiit was the 
beginaing of this destructive process! A taste of 
wine, oi' a glass of beer. How certainly does the 
gratification af one thirst creai^e the nest! We woald 
all do well to accept as our motto: ''Touch not, 
taste not, handle not," 

We have just seen how alarming is th^e 
Alcohol and ^g^^^ ^f aloohol on the stomach. But 

the Liiver. 

the Mver, the heakh-y action of which 
we have found so necessary m the food- digesting 
and blood-purifying processes, suffers fully as much 
from the use of alcoholic drinks. 

After the alcohol has been absorbed by the veins, 
from the stomach, the first organ intf) which it is 
ushered is the liver. A proper secretion of the bile 
in the liver demands that the cellular structure of 
that 4)rgan remain unchanged. Alcohol causes a 
change of the liver cells to fatty tissue, and an en- 
largement of the organ follows. Sts structure then 
becomes lumpy or knobbed, a condition wbieh is 
known as "gin liver" or ''hob-nailed liver." Com- 
pare its appearance under such conditions, as shown 



146 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

on the chart, with its looks when in health, as we 
have seen it on a previous chart. 

What is the result of a liver thus dis- 
eased? The answer is two-fold: First, 
the bile and liver sugar are not properly taken from 
the blood, and whatever poisonous matter is contained 
in the blood which should be removed with the bile 
from the system, must remain and will certainly 
prove destructive to health. In the second place, 
the digestion process is not furnished with the need- 
ed bile, and the work of preparing the food will be 
imperfectly performed. 

The effect of a continued use of alcohol 

tt!c RidnTyl ^P^^^ ^^^^ kidneys, is much like that 
upon the liver. In the kidneys the 
blood is constantly being filtered, and the poisonous 
urea is being taken from it and expelled from the 
body. If the blood carries alcohol into the cells of 
these organs, they will be irritated, inflamed, and 
sometimes destroyed. This is known as Bright's 
disease. Eichardson says that seven out of every 
eight cases of kidney disease are traceable to the 
effect of alcohol. The kidneys are specially liable 
to fatty degeneration from beer drinking. Such a 
diseased fatty accumulation in and about these organs 
is represented on the chart. 



TOBACCO 

AND ITS EFFECTS UPON THE BODY. 

The original home of the tobacco plant seems to 
have been our own America. Before the time of 
Columbus, it was not known to the people of Europe. 
A y-shaped pipe which Columbus found in use by 
the natives of San Domingo was called "tabaca.'''' 
From this came the name, tobacco. 

Tobacco is a strong narcotic, which means that its 
effects upon the body range, according to dose, from 
dullness of feeling and sleepiness, to stupor, convul- 
sions and death. 

Tobacco contains a substance called 
Poisonous nicotine, so named after Jean Nicot, 
Principle. ^j^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j ^^^ plant to Catherine 

de Medici. This nicotine is a deadly poison. It 
may be extracted from the leaves of the tobacco 
plant as a dark-colored liquid, having a sharp, biting 
taste. It has been found that a few drops of this 
poison, when placed on the tongue of a dog, will 
cause death. It has also been found to form a con- 
siderable part of the crust in the bowl of an old 
tobacco pipe. Besides this poisonous nicotine, 
tobacco contains quite a number of other substances, 
many of which have an injurious effect upon the 
body. 

The effects of nicotine upon the body are far- 
reaching and destructive. It weakens the action of 

(147) 



148 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

the nerves, causing trembling; it deadens the nerves, 
producing paralysis. It produces functional dis- 
turbance of the heart, resulting in palpitation and 
irregularity of its action. It deranges the work of 
the stomach, causing dyspepsia and emaciation. It 
affects the eye, expanding the pupil and producing 
dimness and confusion of vision. In the ear it pro- 
duces strange, ringing sounds, which in certain 
cases have been so annoying as to almost drive the 
victim to distraction. 

That the use of tobacco is unnatural, is 

flic use of 

Tobacco clearly shown by the nausea and the 

Unnatural. nervous and muscular weakness which 
it produces when its use is first attempted. The 
giddiness and headache which follows the use of the 
first cigar, or the first quid of tobacco, are Nature's 
means of protesting against the poisonous intrusion. 
Gradually, however, nature yields to the trespass, 
so far as her vigorous warnings are concerned; but 
the damaging effects of the use of the poisonous 
weed are not prevented by her reluctant surrender 
to the habit. 

Injurious as tobacco smoking (in its 
smoki"^ common form) may be, smoking cigar- 
ettes is even more so. The poorest 
kind of tobacco is often used in making them, and 
poisonous substances are added to give them the 
proper strength and flavor. Opium, which is used 
in considerable quantities in this adulteration, is 
carried with the smoke to the lungs, to add its inju- 



TOBACCO AND ITS EFFECTS. 149 

rioiis eflfect to that of the poisonous nicotine. In 
view of the detrimental effect of cigarettes, it is not 
surprising that a number of States have enacted 
laws prohibiting the sale of cigarettes to young 
boys. 

To show that the mucous lining of the 
^■^ . mouth and air passages is subjected to 

a sort of tanning process, and thus has 
its ordinary functions impaired by cigarette smok- 
ing, a simple experiment may be performed. If we 
use a clean, white cloth or handkerchief, two or three 
double, and inhale the smoke of a lighted cigarette, 
and then force it from the mouth through the cloth, 
a brownish yellow spot or stain will be found on it, 
which consists of the poisonous nicotine and other 
ingredients contained in the smoke, and mixed with 
the moisture of the mouth. Deposits of this kind 
are made upon the walls of the air passages when 
cigarettes are smoked. That this must be injurious, 
no one can doubt. 

The respiratory organs are directly and 

Effects on the . , /« . i • i- 

Respiratory scriously aftected by cigarette smoking. 

Organs. q^ ^^^ ^^^^^ p|^^^ ^£ ^^^ ^.^ ^^ ^^^^ 

a series of views which will help us to understand 
the nature of the harm done, and by a careful study 
of these, we may, perhaps, all be led to resolve never 
to smoke cigarettes or cigars. 

The trachea, or wind-pipe, in health, has the 
appearance shown at (1) and (2) in the larger fig- 
ure. At (3) and (4) we are shown how this organ 



150 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

appears internally when it has become inflamed and 
irritated by the use of cigarettes. The inner struc- 
ture of the lungs, with the subdivisions of the bron- 
chial tubes and air-cells, in health, is nicely repre- 
sented at (5). Here also we see the plump, full, 
well-formed lung, before it has become shriveled up 
by the effects of tobacco smoke and deposits. Con- 
trast with this healthy condition the bronzed, hard- 
ened and contracted condition of the lung structure 
as shown at (6), where the air-cells are filled up, 
and the bronchial subdivisions are almost wholly 
obstructed by nicotine deposits. 

The diseased condition of the heart chambers 
which frequently results from the smoking habit, is 
shown in the larger figure. The bluish figure, 
at the right-hand lower corner of the chart, repre- 
sents a small portion of the lung more or less mag- 
nified. On this the deposit of nicotine sediment and 
other tobacco substances is clearly shown. Is it not 
plainly impossible that the blood-purifying process 
should be successfully carried on in lungs whose 
tissue is so much poisoned and obstructed? 

Physicians are becoming convinced of 
^moker'8 ^.j^^ increased occurrence of a peculiar 

Cancer. ^ 

disease resulting from excessive smok- 
ing. This is called smoker^s cancer. It usually 
occurs in the throat and often proves fatal. The 
appearance of the pharynx and the inner wall of the 
trachea, when affected by this disease, is shown in 
a figure on the chart. 



TOBACCO AND ITS EFFECTS. 151 

It is now well known that the vigor of 
Effect on the ^j^ circulation is much diminished in 

Circulation. 

persons who are much addicted to the 
use of tobacco. This results from the weakening 
effect of the nicotine poison on the motor nerves of 
the heart, by which this organ is made unable to 
pump the blood with sufficient force and in sufficient 
quantity to the more distant parts of the body. Such 
a decline in the vigor of the circulation of the blood 
predisposes persons to serious diseases, and so 
enfeebles them that they are unable to resist 
malarial influences or epidemics. 

From a most excellent contribution to the Kan- 
sas MedicalJoitrnal^ on "Tobacco — Its Effects upon 
the Eyesight," by Dr. F. B. Tiffany, we quote the 
following selected passages: 

'' Smoking or chewing in the young impairs growth, 
produces premature development and physical de- 
generation. Even the smallest amount of smoking 
is injurious to the immature. Smoking of cigarettes 
so universal among the youth, with its evil effects 
upon the organism is simply appalling. The evil 
effects of tobacco upon the youth should be pointed 
out by the medical profession ; and, to my thinking, 
it would be well were there a law to be enforced by 
the superintendent and teachers of all public 
schools, prohibiting its use on the part of each and 
every pupil. 

" Tobacco stifles the best mental impressions — 
' blunts the keen edge of thought.' . . . Other 



152 ELEMEiNTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

things being equal, the best man wins in the life 
race, but the man with the dulled intellect, a tobacco 
heart, and a tobacco stomach, is certainly not on 
equal footing with him who is untroubled by the 
toxic (poisonous) influence of tobacco." 

These are plain words from medical authority. 
la the artiele from which they are quoted. Dr. Tiffany 
shows th^ damaging effect of tobacco upon the eye- 
sight, through many degrees of severity, from dim- 
ness of sight to total blindness or tobacco amarausis. 
To show that his professional caution is not founded 
on mere theory, he cites nearly a score of remark- 
able cases of partial or total " tobacco blindness." 

Experiments carefully made and described by Dr. 
De Caisne of France, show that one of the effects of 
nicotine and other alkaloids of tobacco is to produce a 
''rhythmical intermittency" of the beating of theheart. 
In simpler words, the regularity of the heart's beating 
is destroyed. This he found to be the almost iuTari- 
able effect in boys from nine to fifteen. He also found 
that cigarette smoking has tiie effect to change the 
quality of the Mood — robbing it to a large extent of 
its vital character. " This sluggishne&s of the blood 
invariably appears in the character or disposition of 
the boy in habits of laziness, stupidity, indisposition 
.to apply the mind to study, predisposition to alco- 
holic stimulants, and sometimes complete moral and 
intellectual transformation, as well as physical de- 
generacy." 

"A wealthy amateur had been selecting a micro 



TOBACCO AND ITS EFFECTS. 153 

scope, using a drop of blood from bis finger as a 
test, and was leaving the otfice of the optician with a 
cigar in his mouth. A professor of microscopy in a 
medical college happened just then to look through 
the instrument, which was still adjusted, and made 
a rapid mental combination, saying that the customer 
had but few months to live, unless he stopped smok- 
ing at once. But he did not stop. A sea voyage 
did not recruit wasted energy, and a few weeks later 
he died in Paris— his constitution breaking up, as the 
physician said." 

To the foregoing conclusions drawn from the 
observations and experiments of competent profes- 
sional men, the author will add that his own experi- 
ence, as a teacher, is fully corroborative of what is 
represented in the preceding paragraphs as to the 
effect of tlie use of tobacco upon the body during 
the years of its growth. The smoking or chewing 
habit is never associated with perfection of physical 
and mental vigor in the same person. Tobacco 
stupor means weakened nerve power. Weakened 
nerve power means weakened thought power and 
weakened will power. Feeble thought power begets 
permanent mental imbecility, and feeble will power 
grows into moral depravity. 



OPIUM. 



Opium is a dangerous narcotic. Dangerous, be- 
cause it beguiles its victim into a bondage from wliicli 
release seems to be next to impossible. 

This drug is extracted from the juice of the poppy. 
For this purpose the poppy plant is cultivated on a 
large scale in some eastern countries. 

The active principle of opium is morphine. The 
name comes from Morpheus^ the god of dreams and 
sleep. 

The effect of opium upon the body is, first, to 
soothe the nerves, thus subduing the severity of 
pain, or even relieving it altogether. 

In large quantities, it affects the brain peculiarly, 
fires the imagination and spurs up the organs of the 
body generally. But this temporary revel of the 
feelings is followed by a most depressed condition 
of mind and body. 

Many pain-relieving and sleep-producing prepa- 
rations owe their peculiar power to the opium which 
enters into their composition. Among these are 
laudanum, paregoric, soothing syrups, and Dover's 
powder. Not one of these should be used except 
under the direction of a careful physician. 

" The victim of opium is bound to a drug from 
which he derives no benefit, but which slowly de- 
prives him of health and happiness, finally to end in 

(154) 



OPIUM. 155 

idiocy or premature death. Wliatever the victim's 
conditioD or surrouudings may be, the opium must 
be takeD at certain times with inexorable regularity. 
The liquor or tobacco user can, for a time, go with- 
out the use of these agents, and no regular hours 
are necessary. During sickness, and more especially 
during the eruptive fevers, he does not desire 
tobacco or liquor. The opium eater has no such 
reprieves; his dose must be taken, and, in painful 
complications affecting the stomach, a large increase 
is demanded to sustain the system. If, in forming 
the habit, two doses are taken each day, the victim 
is obliged to maintain that number. It is the 
unceasing, everlasting slavery of regularity that 
humiliates opium-eaters by a sense of their own 
weakness." — Hubbard. 



P^RPENDIX. 



SUPPLEMENTARY DESCRIPTION OF THE STRTJOTURE 

AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANS OF THE 

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 



In the presentatioD of the subject of the circula- 
tion of the blood, for the use of ordinary pupils, it 
was considered best to give tJie essential facts, in as 
plain a form as possible, without encumbering the 
description with too many scientific terms, or with 
statements which would be of interest only to 
teachers and advanced pupils. For the latter class 
of readers of this book, we give the following addi- 
tional facts relating to the circulatory system. 

We have learned that the blood is the 
great nutritive fluid upon which our 
bodies subsist. We have also learned that in every 
round which it makes through the body it is made 
impure, and that on this account it must, once in 
every round, pass through the lungs for purification. 
Blood is produced from solid and liquid food. 
There are about eighteen pounds of blood in the 
human body of average weight. The red corpuscles 
of the blood are the carriers of the oxygen which is 
taken in through the lungs. As this oxygen is ex- 
changed in the body for carbon- dioxide, this gas is 
carried to the heart and thence to the lungs by the 
same corpuscles. The coloring matter of the red 

(156) 



APPENDIX, 157 

corpuscles is called haemaglobine. This, when 
separated from the blood, crystallizes. The peculiar 
shapes of these haemaglobine blood-crystals, as they 
appear under the microscope, are represented near 
the top of the sixth chart. It is an important fact 
that in the blood of different animals, these crystals 
have different shapes. Thus the microscopist is able 
to tell positively whether the blood which he is 
examining is the blood of a human being, cat, rat, 
squirrel or othet animal. 

The purpose of the white corpuscles, which are 
found in the blood in limited number, is not under- 
stood. The plasma, or fluid blood, carries in solu- 
tion the nutritious elements of the food, which have 
been transferred to the circulatory channels from 
the digestive system. 

The valve between the right auricle and 
Valves^**** the right ventricle is called the tricuspid 

valve. Between the chambers of the 
left side of the heart is the bicuspid valve. At the 
beginning of the pulmonary artery the semi-lunar 
valve guards against the backward flow of blood in- 
to the heart. The same effect is prevented by a 
valve at the beginning of the aorta. 

(Refer to fourth chart.) The pul- 
V^stfm^^^^^ monary artery is the exception to the 

rule that the arteries carry pure blood. 
It conveys the impure blood from the heart to the 
lungs. The aorta is the great trunk of the arterial 
system. Very near its commencement it first gives 



158 APPENDIX. 

to the structure of the heart the coronary arteries 
(33); then it gives off the innominate artery (18) 
which, again, sends the right suhclaviaJi artery (20) 
to the arm, and the right carotid artery (19) to neck 
and head. Next, the left carotid (21) ascends from 
the aorta through the left side of the neck to the 
head. The carotid arteries (19, 21) divide into 
numerous branches, distributed to the jaws, (1, 
external maxillnry) — to the lips, (2, lower labial] 3, 
upper labial) — to the nose, (4, angular \ 5, dorsalis 
nasi] 6, alares nasi) — to the eyes and eyelids, (7, 
ophthalmic) — to the forehead, (8, frontal) — to the 
eye sockets, (9, upper orbital] 10, lower orbital) — 
to the temples, (11, deep temporal] 12, outer tem- 
poral] 13, front temporal). All these are still 
farther sub-divided, and numerous other branches 
are given off by the carotids. 

Starting again from the great bend or arch of the 
aorta (17), we follow, under the collar-bone, the sub- 
clavian artery (22) ; farther on, in the shoulder, this 
becomes the axillary artery (55) ; in the arm it is 
called the brachial artery (60) ; in the forearm the 
brachial artery divides to form the radial artery 
(62) and the ulnar artery (65). These are the 
arterial trunk lines of the arm, which, by their 
numerous branches, supply every part of that limb, 
down to the tips of the fingers, with blood. 

As the aorta passes downward through the chest, 
it is called the thoracic aorta, and gives off branches 
to the pericardium, lungs, and trachea, oesophagus. 



APPENDIX. 159 

partition between the lungs, and the walls of the 
chest. After it passes through the diaphragm into 
the abdomen, it is called the abdominal aorta (34). 
Then it gives off the phrenic arteries (35) to supply 
the diaphragm, and walls of chest and abdomen. 
Next we observe the coeliac axis (36), the common 
origin of three important aortal branches, namely, 
the gastric artery passing to the stomach, the hepatic 
artery passing to the liver, and the splenic artery 
going to the spleen and other abdominal organs. 
Then the superior mesenteric artery (37) starts off 
to supply the upper part of the intestinal region. 
Immediately below the upper mesenteric artery, the 
renal arteries (41) branch off to the right and left 
kidneys. At (38) the spermatic arteries branch off 
to be distributed to the reproductive organs, the 
inferior mesenhric artery (39) supplies the lower 
inner abdominal parts. One of its main branches 
is the haemorrhoidal artery (40). All these aortal 
branches are much farther subdivided. Finally, in 
the abdomen, rather to the left side of the middle 
abdominal line, at a point cor^3sponding within to 
the left side of the umbilicus (navel), the aorta 
divides into the two great common iliac arteries 
(42). After giving small branches to the peri- 
toneum, loins, and other parts, the iliac arteries 
branch off again into two main channels, the internal 
and the external iliacs (43, 44) to supply with num- 
erous branches the internal and t-xternal parts of the 
pelvic and hip regions. The continuation of the ea?- 



160 APPENDIX. 

ternal iliac artery (44) into the thigh, becomes the 
femoral artery (70). In the upper part of the thigh 
the femoral artery runs rather close to the surface. 
Tlirough the middle thigh it runs deeper in two 
branches, (70, 71). The figure shows a number 
of the larger branches of the femoral. In the lower 
part of the upper leg the femoral turns deeper or 
backward, throwing out, at the same time, what are 
called the three per/ora/mgr arteries (83, 84, 85, right- 
hand figure). Above the knee, the femoral becomes 
the popliteal artery (86). Below the knee, the 
popliteal divides to form the anterior tibial (74, full 
figure, 91, lower leg figure), and posterior tibial 
(98). The pe7^oneal artery (92), is a large branch 
of the posterior tibial. The two last named arteries 
send out their branches to all parts of the lower leg 
and foot. 

The foregoing is a description of the main arte- 
rial channels which are distributed to the various 
parts of the body. The numerous small arterial 
branches which diverge from the great arteries just 
learned, by their farther division into innumerable 
capillary channels, furnish blood to every tissue at 
all points in the whole structure. 

Having passed through the capillary meshes, and 
having delivered its nutrient substances for the 
growth and repair of the body, and taken up, instead, 
waste materidi and impurities from the body, the 
blood is re-collected by numerous veinlets which 
soon run together to form important venous chan- 



APPENDIX, 161 

nels. We have an illustration of this on the chart, 
in the right leg figure, where the veins of that limb 
which are near to the surface, are shown to form the 
smaller and the larger saphenous veins (96, 95). 
Similarly, in the right arm, the formation of the 
cephalic (57), basilic (58) and median vein (59) is 
shown. In the lower part of the trunk, the blood 
from the lower extremities and from the hips and 
lower abdominal parts is collected into the great 
iliac veins (51), corresponding to the great iliac ar- 
teries. These iliac veins unite to form the large 
ascending i^ena cava (47), Some of the larger trib- 
utaries flowing into the last named channel of the 
venous system are the spermatic veins (50), the 
renal veins (49), the hepatic veins (48), and the 
phrenic veins, corresponding to the phrenic arteries. 
From above, on the right side, the sub-clavian 

(27) and the jugular veins unite to form the right 
innominate vein (24). On the left side, the left 
sub-clavian, the jugular (25) and the thyroid veins 

(28) unite to form the left innominate vein (23). 
Now the two innominate veins (23, 24) join to form 
the great descending vena cava (14), which enters 
the right auricle of the heart. 

The pulmonary veins (31) are the exception to 
the rule that veins carry impure blood. They return 
the purified blood from the lungs to the heart. 

The great veins from tlie abdominal organs, which 
unite to form the portal vein have been described 
under the portal circulation. 



162 APPENDIX. 

The manner in which the supply of 
moo^dlup^^^^^ to the various parts and organs 

of the body is regulated, is one of the 
most interesting subjects of physiological study. 
'' Nature is never wasteful, whether of power or ma- 
terial. All her operations are performed on the 
principle of a proper economy." When any limb or 
organ of the body performs work, it suffers wear, 
which calls for a larger supply of repairing material 
than would be needed if it were more inactive. In gen- 
eral, the proper flow of blood to any part is in pro- 
portion to the activity of such part. How is this 
blood-flow adjusted? 

The arteries have three distinct coats. 

Vaso- motor 

xerA es and In the smaller arteries, the middle coat 
is almost entirely composed of tiny 
muscular fibers. These muscular fibers, like the 
fibers of all other muscles, are in nervous connection 
with controlling centers of the nervous system. By 
this plan of structure, the muscles of the small ram- 
ifying arteries are under involuntary or sympa- 
thetic nervous control. By their action the capacity 
of the small arterial channels is increased or dimin- 
ished. The nerves which control these blood-vessel 
muscles are called vaso-moior nerves, and their 
regulation of blood-supply is called vaso-moior acfion. 
So " vaso-motor nerves " may be understood to mean 
"blood-vessel controlling nerves." Now, for illus- 
tration, when the brain is actively exercised, as in 
hard study, the muscles of the blood-vessels of the 



APPENDIX, 163 

brain, by sympathetic action of the vaso-motor nerves 
which control them, are made to act in sucli a way 
as to increase tlie dimension of these blood-vessels, 
and thus increase the flow of blood to the brain. 
When the brain returns to a state of rest, a reverse 
action of these tiny muscles restores the blood- 
vessels to their former diminished capacity. 

So, while the general circulation ordinarily goes 
on at a uniform rate, the local supply of blood is 
subject to much variation. This arrangement — as 
wise as it is wonderful — has been nicely illustrated 
as follows: "If when one group of muscles was set 
at work and needed an extra blood supply, this could 
be attained only by increasing the heart's activity 
and keeping up a faster blood -flow everywhere 
through the body, there would be a clear waste of 
force, much as if the chandeliers in a house were so 
arranged that when a large flame was w^anted at one 
burner, it could only be obtained by turning more 
gas on at all the rest. Besides the big tap at the 
gas-meter, regulating the general supply of the 
house, local taps at each burner are required, which 
regulate the gas supply to each flame, independently 
of the rest. Vaso-motor action is a similar arrange- 
ment in the blood-supply of the body." 



164 APPENDIX. 



A GENERAL VIEW OF THE COMBINATION AND RE- 
LATION OF THE VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF THE 
BODY, AS SHOWN BY THE MANIKINS 
OF THE ANATOMICAL AID. 



MANIKIN OF THE HEAD. 

First Section, This first section of the manikin 
of the head represents as nearly as possible the per- 
fection of external form and feature. The variations 
from such an ideal figure, which give such an end- 
less variety to the personal appearance of men and 
women, are chiefly due to the following physiological 
conditions : 1. — Differences in shape and prominence 
of the bones of the skull and face. 2. — Peculiarities 
in the size, shape and position of the ears. 3. — Shape 
and prominence of the bones and cartilages of the nose. 
4. — Differences in plumpness of muscle and fat 
underlying the skin. 5. — Variable shapes and full- 
ness of the lips. 6. — Protruding or retired eyes. 
7. — Color of eyes and hair. 8. — Complexion of the 
skin. 9. — Expression oi the eye. 10. — Themiiscw- 
lar habits of the countenance. 

Second Section. Close under the skin and its 
underlying cushions of fat, appear vessels of the 
circulatory system and numerous muscular bands. 
Of the former system, the external carotid artery 
(24), sends the posterior auricular to distribute 
blood to the region back of the ears ; the outer tem- 
poral (26) to the temples; the transverse facial (27) 
to the middle portions of the face; the external 



APPENDIX, 165 

maxillary (28) to the jaws; the lower labial (29) to 
the lower lip; the angular (30) to the nose, and the 
fronial (31) to the forehead region. The frontal 
vein (23) from the forehead, the ophthalmic (22) 
from the eye, the temporal (21) from the temples, 
the labial (20) from the lips, and the occipital (17) 
from the back part of the head, with others, unite 
in the outer and inner jugular veins (16, 19) to 
drain the impure blood from the head towards the 
heart. 

Of the muscles, the sterno-cleido-mastoid^ the 
prominent muscle on the side of the neck, starts 
from the sternum and clavicle bones and goes 
obliquely upward and is attached above to the mastoid 
process of the temporal bone. There are, of course, 
two of these muscles — one on each side. When one 
acts alone, it brings the head obliquely forward. 
When both act at the same time, they bring the 
head directly forward. 

Just back of the muscle just described, lies the 
spleyiius muscle (2). Starts from the five upper 
vertebral bones, and goes to the temporal bone. It 
acts counter to the sterno-cleido-mastoid, since it 
aids in moving the head backward. 

The occipito-frontal muscle (3) passes from the 
back part of the head, over the top, to the lower edge 
of the forehead. It raises the eye-brows and wrink- 
les the forehead horizontally. 

The masseter, or chewing muscle (5), passes from 
the malar bone (cheek-bon'e) and the upper maxiU 



166 APPENDIX. 

lary (upper jaw-bone) above, to the lower jaw-bone. 

The huccinato7% or blowing muscle (6), forms the 
principal part of the cheek. It passes forward to 
the corners of the mouth. When it contracts, it 
draws the angle of the mouth backward. The 
trumpeter or cornetist makes good use of this muscle. 

The two zygomatic muscles — zygomatic major (7) 
and zygomaiic minor (8) — pass from the cheek-bone 
to the upper lip, which they raise and draw outward 
as in laughing. 

The circular muscle about the mouth — oj^hicularts 
oris (9) — in ordinary contraction, closes the lips; in 
strong contraction, it puckers the mouth. 

The depressor anguli oris (10) starts from the 
lower edge of the lower jaw and passes up to the 
corner of the mouth, which, by its contraction, is 
drawn downward. 

The depressor labii inferioris (11) pulls down the 
lower lip. 

The circular muscle about the eje— orbicularis 
palpehrarum (12) — closes the eye. 

The levator alee nasi (14) contracts to enlarge 
the nostrils. 

Third Section. Here the bony framework of the 
head is brought to Yiew^ The frontal bone (32) 
giving shape to the forehead, the parietals (33), the 
upper sides of the skull; the temporal (34), the 
lower skull sides, or temples. Two important pro- 
jections or processes of the temporal bone are shown: 
The zygomatic process (35) which goes forward 



APPENDIX. 167 

to meet a similar process of the indlar or cheek-bone 
(88) to form the zygomatic arch, under which sev- 
eral muscles pass, and the mastoid process, which 
may be felt as quite a prominence direcily beliind 
the ears. Parts of the nasal, upper maxilUtry and 
lower maxillary appear at (39, 40, 41). The suture 
joint connection between the bones of tlie head is 
also shown. The outer layer of a part of the bones 
at the back of the skull is represented as removed, 
to show the interior spongy texture between the two 
bony layers. 

Of the deeper muscles which here appear, we have 
another view of the orhicularis oris (53) and the 
buccinator (54). 

The two pterygoid muscles (55, 56) are very prom- 
inently concerned in the process of chewing. 

The stylo-hyoid muscle starts from the styloid 
process of the temporal bone and passes down to the 
bone at the base of the tongue. It draws this 
tongue-bone upward and backward. 

The remaining muscles shown on this seccion 
perform various movements of the pharynx, tongue, 
head and neck. 

Fourth Section, Here the left side of the skull 
is removed, giving us a view into the very interior 
of the brain — the great capital of the nervous system. 

The delicate coverings of the brain are shown — 
(a a) being the outer and harder one, called the 
dura mater. At (u) and (v), portions of the outer 
surface of both the cerebrum and cerebellum — 



168 APPENDIX, 

larger and smaller brains — are shown, with some of 
the veins which collect the blood from them. Some 
of the nerves passing from the brain to the eye and 
various parts of the face also appear. The spinal 
column is shown as cut vertically in two, revealing 
the spinal cord (w) with its branching nerves, and 
the spinous processes of the vertebrae with the bind- 
ing ligaments between them (89). 

Fifth Section. This brings us to the very middle 
of the skull'and its contents. We are looking at the 
inner surface of the right hemisphere of the brain. 
Some of the numerous arteries which furnish ^it 
richly with blood, are shown. The corpus callosum 
(127), is a peculiar white body, comparatively hard, 
at the base of the cerebrum. The interesting tree- 
like structure, called the arbor vitae (123), which 
appears when the cerebellum is vertically bisected, is 
nicely represented. At (124) is the upper part of 
the spinal cord [medulla oblongata)^ and at (150) 
the spinal cord itself is showii to pass down through 
its vertebral canal. 

MANIKIN OF THE BODY. 

On removing from the trunk its integument, or 
skin covering, the muscular system at once comes 
prominently into view, showing the great muscles 
which pass from the head, through the neck, to the 
chest and to the shoulders; those which pass frora 
the chest to the shoulder and arm: the outer muscles 



APPENDIX. 169 

of the abdomeu, and the large muscles which pass 
from the trunk to the thigh. 

The great surface muscles of the trunk being 
removed, the bony frame-work of the chest appears in 
the stermim or breast-bone (2), to which the twelve 
pairs of ribs (3, 4), are attached by their cartilages (5). 
Within these the muscular system is again represent- 
ed by the intercostal muscles (6). Within these, 
again lies the pleura shown on the opposite side. 

The ribs, with their connecting muscles and lining 
pleura being removed, the organs of the chest — lungs 
and heart — are seen in place. First we notice, the 
light, spongy or cellular structure of the lungs; also 
their lobular divisions — three on the right and two 
on the left side. 

On the next section the circulatory system is 
prominently represented, first, by its great central 
organ, the heart (10), lying beneath and between the 
right and left lungs. Its auricle and ventricle 
chambers lie within, as located by (13, 14, 11, 12). 
The great pulmonary artery (16) carries the impure 
blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. The 
pulmonary veins (18) bring the purified blood back 
from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart. The 
descending vena cava (17) formed by the large veins 
which drain the head, neck, arms, and upper chest, 
empties the impure blood into the right auricle of 
the heart. From the left ventricle of the heart, the 
great aorta (15) springs to deliver pure blood to 
numerous arteries throughout the body. 



170 APPENDIX. 

The next section is chiefly illustrative of the 
respiratory system, showing, by a special manikin, 
the structure ©f the organ of the voice — the larynx — 
at the top of the trachea (24) or wind-pipe. We 
observe the division of the trachea into the bronchial 
tubes (25), and the farther subdivision of these into 
numerous air tubes which ramify the lungs and 
terminate in countless air-cells. At (f),(g,) and (c), 
respectively, are portions of the pulmonary artery, 
aorta and descending vena cava. The heart chambers 
are laid open and the inner valves appear. 

In the abdominal region, after the skin and mus- 
cular wall is removed, the periioneum (a) appears. 
This forms a lining of the abdomen, and, at the same 
time, by its numerous folds, or omenta (5), covers the 
abdominal organs. 

Removing the peritoneal veil, the digestive system 
is brought to view. First, the middle portion of the 
small intestines — the jejunum (a), and the latter 
portion — ^the ilium (b); then, on the next section, 
the divisions of the large intestine, as, the transverse 
colon (a), the descending colon (d), the beginning 
of the ascending colon (f). At (h) is the end of 
the duodenum; at (i) the beginning of the jejunum ; 
at (k) the end of the ilium. The mesenteric folds 
of the peritoneum, winding between and around the 
intestines, are shown at (g). 

At this point we notice the diaphragm (26) — the 
muscular partition between the chest and the abdo- 
men. Observing its relation to the abdominal organs, 



APPENDIX, 171 

we can see why it is that when the diaphragm presses 
these organs down, as it does in tlie act of inspiration, 
the abdominal wall must expand and move outward. 

Directly under the diaphragm partition we meet 
the liver, lying over and to the right of the stomach. 
It has two lobes — called the right and left. Its inner 
section shows its importance as a blood-receiving 
and blood-changing organ. At (g) is the bile 
reservoir or gall-bladder. 

Next we observe the position and shape of the 
stomach (31). We see how it connects with the 
duodenal end (a) of the small intestines. In this 
portion of the small intestines the process of diges- 
tion is completed. Where the stomach ends and the 
duodenum begins, is the pylorus valve. The oeso- 
phagus (35) is the tube leading from the throat to 
the stomach, through which food passes in swallowing. 

The next section shows the inner wall of the 
stomach. Its rosy tint comes from the great num- 
ber of blood-vessels which run through the inner 
coat. The pylorus is situated at (c). The blood- 
vessels which ramify the intestinal wall are shown. 

We notice next the position and structure of the 
Jcidjieys (29). The inner section [right kidney) 
shows how blood is brought to these organs by the 
renal arteries (g), and carried away from them by 
the renal veins ( 55 ) . The inner section ( left kidney) 
show^s the pyramids of Malpighii^ in which the urine 
is secreted from the blood. When thus secreted, 
the urine trickles into the kidney reservoir — pelvis 



172 APPENDIX, 

renalis (c) — from whence it is carried through the 
ureters (56) into the bladder (57) and from thence 
out of the body. 

The pancreas (59) lies behind the stomach and 
left kidney. It secretes the pancreatic fluid which 
seryes in the process of digestion. The spleen (60) 
lies on the left side under the left end of the stom- 
ach. The use of this organ is not understood. 

On the last section of the body manikin, the bony 
system is represented by sectional views of the 
clavicle, or collar-bone (48), the scapula, or shoulder- 
blade (49), the upper part of the humerus^ or arm- 
bone (50), the rihs (53), the ossa innomincda^ or 
pelvic bones (58), and the head (a) and larger 
process (b) of ihe femur ^ or thigh bone (61). 

The muscular system is here represented by the 
deep muscles of the neck (47), the deltoid and 
brachial muscles of the shoulder (51, 52), the infer - 
costal muscles between the ribs, and the psoas (54) 
and other muscles of the loins and thighs. 

Observe the thoracic duct (46) as it begins in the 
chyle receptacle (46 a) in the abdomen, and ascends 
behind the oesophagus to the left shoulder region 
(46b), where it empties chyle and lymph into the 
left subclavian vein (38). 

The circulatory system appears in the subclavian 
arteries and veins (39, 37, 38), the thoracic aorta 
(45), the abdominal aorta (42), and the iliac divis- 
ions of the aorta (41, 44), the iliac veins (43) and 
their union into the great ascending vena cava (40). 



OUTLINE LESSONS 

Suggesting a Method of Elementary Drill. 



EXERCISE I. 

FIRST SKELETON PLATE. 

Teacher, — Of what is this a p'cture, class? 

George perhaps answers: "A man." Fannie may 
say : "They are bones." After drawing out as many 
ideas as ]: ossible concerning the figure on the plate, 
state as follows: 

"This is a picture of the framework of the body, 
and it is called a skeleton. All pronounce the 
word." 

Pupils, — Skeleton. 

T. — The framework or skeleton of the body contains 
208 separate pieces called bones. Now let us notice 
the different shapes of these bones. Charles, what par- 
ticular one are you noticing now ? 

Chai'les. — The long one which forms the leg. 

r. — Yes, that is a long, straight bone. Hattie, what 
different shaped one do you see? 

Hattie, — I am looking at the flat one at the shoulder. 

T. — Yes, notice that in the lower part of the body, 
there are also some large flat bones (3). What other 
shapes of bones do you see, class? 

(173) 



1 74 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

Some \vill notice the broad curved bones of the skull, 
others the slender, bent bones of the ribs, others the 
small round bones of the wrist, and so forth. In this 
way, drill into the minds of your pupils the idea of 
shape as a property of bones. 

T. — Now since there is such a large number of 
bones in the body, it will be best for us to study them 
in sets or groups. How many different groups of bones 
do there seem to be in the skeleton ? 

Perhaps half-a-dozen hands will go up. One says 
he sees two groups; another three, some, possibly 
four. After letting them state their various observa- 
tions on this point, state as follow^s: 

"There are four sets or divisions of the bones of the 
body — the bones of the head, the bones of the trunk, 
the bones of the upper limbs or extremities, and the 
bones of the lower extremities." 

This will be sufficient material for the first exercise. 

T. — Hov^ many of you will be willing to bring a 
specimen of a bone to the class to-morrow, when we 
have our next drill ? 

A number of hands will go up. Appoint Fred to 
bring a long slender bone; Edward a flat bone, and so 
on; so that you may have the differently shaped bones 
for next day's review of the first lesson. 

T. — Now let us see vs^hat we have learned. What is 
the framework of the body called ? 

P. — The skeleton. 

T. — Of what is it composed? 

P._Of bones. 

T. — How many bones in the skeleton? 
'P. — Two hundred and eight. 



UTLINE LESSONS. 1 7 5 

T. — What sha^^es of bones have we found? 

P. — Long, straight bones; Hat bones; curved bones 
and round bones. 

T. — How many divisions or groups of bones in the 
skeleton? 

P.— Four. 

T. — Name them? 

P. — The head, the trunk, the upper extremities and 
the lower extremities. 

T. — In to-morrow's lesson we will learn ail we can 
about the bones of the head. 

EXERCISE IL 

FIRST SKELETON PLATE, 

T. — Now let me see how much you remember of 
your first physiology lesson. How many sets or groups 
of bones did we find in the skeleton? 

P.— Four. 

T. — (Pointing to skeleton.) Herbert, what is this 
group called? 

He7'bert, — The head. 

T. — Ella, w^ill you name this division of the s'kele- 
ton? 

Ella, — The trunk. 

T. — Jennie, what are these parts called? 

yennie, — The upper limbs or extremities. 

T. — Have you brought in the specimens which you 
promised me yesterday? 

(Specimens are handed in and carefully compared 
and examined.) 

T. — Now to-day, we will study the bones of the 



176 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

head. Draw out ideas about the shape. Encourage 
the pupils in expressing their ideas by comparison. 
Even if Harry should compare the head, in shape, to 
his foot-ball, do not ridicule but encourage the observa- 
tion. 

^ , —[Pointing to the forehead on the chart, ^ What 
do you call this part of the head? 

Some will answer: " The front part." Others may 
say: "The forehead." Approve both answ^ers. 

T, — Place your finger on the front part of your 
head. Do you feel a bone there? - 

p._Yes. 

T. — This large bone (i) in the front part of the head 
is called che frontal bone. 

(Teacher spells the name and w^rites it on the black- 
board.) 

T, — What is this part of the head called? 

P. — The side. 

T. — Yes; the upper sides of the head are formed by 
the parietal bones (2). (Spell the name and write on 
blackboard.) Here (12) the dividing line between the 
frontal bone and the parietal bone is very clearly shown. 
On the second or back-view chart of the skeleton {tur7i 
to it) the two parietal bones (2) are more fully shown, 
( Turn back to the first chart,) 

T. — The lower sides of the head are called the tem» 
pies. Place your finger on the side of your head, just 
in front of the upper part of your ear. The bone which 
you feel is this one numbered (3) on the chart. It is 
called the temporal bone. We notice this dividing 
line between this temporal bone and the frontal and 
parietal bones. The back-view of the head (turn to 



UTLINE LESSONS. 177 

nex^ c/iart) shows the back part ot the temporal bone. 
Of course, there are two temporal bones — one on each 
lower side of the head. 

T. — Touch the back part of your head. Now you 
feel the bone which is shown here (4). Its name may 
be hard for you to remember. I will write it, as I 
spell it, on the board: O-c-c-i-p-i-t-a-1, occipital. What 
is this called ? 

P — Occipital. 

T. — Now how many and what bones of the head 
have we learned about? 

P. — One frontal bone, two parietal bones, two tem- 
poral bones, and one occipital bone. 

T. — Right, so far; besides these there are two more, 
which form, as it were, the floor or bottom of the bone- 
box which forms the upper part of the head. These 
two bones which cannot be shown on the chart because 
they are so much concealed within the other bones of 
the head, are called the sphenoid bone and the eth- 
moid bone. Now these two bones, with those we have 
learned about before, make how many ? 

P.— Eight. 

T. — Right; these eight bones of the head are put 
together in such a box-like form, to contain and protect 
one of the most delicate and important parts of the 
body. How many of you knovs^ what is contained in 
this box? (Hands up.) All who know may tell me. 

P.— The brain. 

T. — Correct. We shall learn about the brain here- 
after. Now the upper part of the head, which we 
have called the brain-box, formed by the eight bones 
of which we have learned, is called the skull. Will 



178 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

you liww name the eight bones which form the skull? 

P. — One frontal, two parietal, t^vo temporal, one 
occipital, one sphenoid and one ethmoid bone. 

T. — Very good. What bone forms the front of the 
skull or brain-box ? 

P. — The frontal bone. 

T. — What bones meet above to form the top of the 
skull? 

P. — The frontal and the parietal bones. 

T. — What bones form the sides of the skull? 

P. — The parietal and the temporal bones, 

T. — What bone forms the back of the skull? 

P. — The occipital bone. 

T. — What bones form the floor or bottom of the 
skull? 

P. — The sphenoid and the ethmoid bones. 

EXERCISE III. 

FIRST SKELETON PLATE. 

Note. — As these exercises are simply suggestive, the 
teacher must feel at liberty to vary them according to his 
pleasure. He must also use his judgment as to w^hether it is 
best for him to undertake to teach the pupils the names of the 
bones in these elementary drill lessons. Teachers who prefer 
to do so will find the names in the index to the skeleton charts. 

T. — Thirty bones make up the whole skeleton of the 
head. How many of these did we find in the skull? 

P.— Eight. 

T. — There are four very small bones in each ear. 
The remaining bones of the head form the face. Ralph, 
will you t^ll me how many bones there must be in the 
face? 



UTLINE LESSONS. 179 

Ralph, — Fourteen. 

T. — Very well. What different parts of the face do 
you notice.^ 

P. — Nose, mouth, cheek, chin, eyes. 

T.— What is this (6)? 

P.— The nose. 

T. — Is it the whole of the nose? 

P. — No; it is only the bony part of the nose. 

T. — Yes; it is called the bridge of the nose, and is 
formed by two small bones. {Nasal bones,) What 
is this (4) part of the face called? 

P. — The cheek. 

T. — You can easily feel your cheek bone {malar^ 
on each side of your face. Laura, what would you call 
this (7) bone ? 

Laura, — -Jaw-bone. 

T. — Robert, what would you call this (8) bone? 

Robert, — Jaw-bone. 

T. — You are both right; but how shall we tell these 
jaw-bones apart? 

P. — By calling them upper and lower jaw-bones. 

T. — Do you notice anything more about these jaw- 
bones? 

Ralfh, — The teeth seem to be fastened into them. 

T. — So they are. The t^eth are set very firmly into 
pits or sockets of these jaw-bones. Besides these two 
nose-bones, two cheek-bones, and two jaw-bones, there 
are eight other face bones, which are more concealed^ 
and whose names you will learn by and by. Now what 
seems to be the use of these face bones? (Draw out: 
to shape the nose, the cheek, the chin, and to contain 
the mouth, teeth, eyes, and so forth.) 



180 ELEMENTARY PHYc^lOLOG Y. 

T. — Now let me see what you know about the bones 
of the head. What is this (i) bone called? 

P.— The frontal bone. 

T.— This bone (2)? 

P. — Parietal bone. 

T. — This on the lower side of the head (3)? 

P. — The temporal bone. 

T. — And what bone forms the back of the head? 

P. — The occipital bone. 

T. — Besides these there are how many more skull 
bones ? 

p. — Two; the sphenoid and the ethmoid. 

T. — How many skull bones in all? 

P.— Eight. 

T.— What is the use of the skull? 

P. — To enclose and protect the brain. 

T. — How many bones in each ear? 

p._Four. 

T. — How many bones in the face? 

P. — Fourteen. 

T. — What face bones can you mention? 

P. — Two nose bones; two cheek bones; two jaw- 
bones. 

T. — How many more are added to these six to form 
the face ? 

P.— Eight. 

T. — What are set in the jaw-bones? 

P.— The teeth. 

T. — In our next lesson we will learn about the bones 
of the trunk. 



UTLINE LESSONS. 181 

EXERCISE IV. 

FIRST SKELETON CHART, 

T. — What is this division of the skeleton called ? 

P.— The trunk. 

T. — That seems to be a very good name for it. You 
know, a trunk is used to contain and protect such ar. 
tides as are put into it. So here, the trunk of the body, 
especially as is shov^n by the shape of its upper part, is 
intended to contain some important inside parts of the 
body. Can any one of you name some part of the 
body which is contained in this trunk ? 

Mattie, — I think the heart is in the trunk. 

Albert, — The lungs. 

T. — The upper part of the trunk which encloses the 
heart and the lungs, is called the chest. 

Charles, — That is also the name of something which 
shuts in things for safe-keeping. 

T. — You are right, Charles. The lower part of the 
trunk is called the abdomen. Can you tell me any 
parts of the body which you think are in the abdomen ? 

Harry, — The stomach. 

Nellie, — The liver. 

T. — Correct. Now let us see how the framework 
of the trunk is put together. Notice this long pillar of 
bones at the back. What is this called? 

P. — The back-bone. 

T. — Yes; it is also called the spine or spinal column. 
The next chart (turn to it) gives us a very good view 
of the spinal column. John, what do you notice at its 
upper end? 

yohn, — The head rests on it. 



182 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOG Y 

T. — Right; Ada, what do you see at the lower part 
of it? 

Ada, — There are large bones fastened to it. 

T. — Hattie, what do you notice about its middle 
part? 

Hattie, — There are many bones fastened to it. 

T. — This great spinal pillar, or backbone, is built up 
of twenty-six separate bones. Please count them aloud, 
as I point to them from the top down. 

(Teacher point to each, from (i) at the top, to (5) at 
the bottom.) 

T. — There must be some good reason why the back- 
bone is composed of so many parts instead of being 
but a single bone. Thomas, can you see any reason 
for it? 

Thomas, — I think it makes the back stronger. 

T. — You are right, Thomas. What more does the 
class think about it? 

Ida. — We could not bend the back if it were all 
one bone. 

T. — That is true. Each one of these bones is called 
a vertebra. This name is spelled, v-e-r-t-e-b-r-a. 
Albert, please write it on the board. Now, please notice 
that these vertebrae do not rest directly upon each 
other. We see white, cushion-like bodies placed be- 
tween them. {See first chart^ between lower verte- 
brce^ These are composed of tough material, but 
softer than bones. This material is called cartilage. 
It makes the backbone springy: that is, it makes it 
easier to bend the back, and also prevents injury to the 
brain from heavy jars to the body. 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 183 

EXERCISE V. 

SECOND SKELETON CHART. 

T. — What is this (14) great pillar of the body called? 

P. — The backbone, or spinal column. 

T. — Of how many bones is it composed? 

P. — Twenty-six. 

T. — What is each bone called? 

P. — A vertebra. 

T. — What are placed between the vertebrae of the 
backbone? 

P. — Cushions of cartilage. 

T. — For what purpose? 

P. — To enable us to bend the body, and to soften the 
effects on the brain, of heavy footsteps or violent jars 
of the body. 

T. — Now let us next learn the four divisions of this 
spinal column. {Pointing- to upper vertebrcE,) What 
is this part of the body called? 

P.— The neck. 

T. — The neck is formed by a number of vertebrae 
of the back-bone. Let us see how many. As I point 
to each, please count aloud. (Pupils count seven.) 
How many vertebrae are in the neck ? 

P. — Seven. 

T. — Can you name these long curved bones? 

P.— Ribs. 

T. — Right. They remind us of barrel-hoops. We 
see that they are in pairs. Let us count these pairs of 
ribs. {Point to each from top down zvhile pupils 
count,) Twelve pairs. To what are these ribs fast- 
ened behind? 



1 84 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOQ Y. 

P. — To the vertebras of the backbone. 

T. — So how many vertebrae of the back have ri'os 
attached to them^ 

P. — Twelve. 

T. — These twelve vertebrae which have ribs attached 
to them are called vertebrse of the back. Below these 
are the five large vertebrae of the loins. {^Point to each 
and count. ^ Now what three divisions of the back- 
bone have we found? 

P. — Seven vertebrae of the neck, twelve vertebrae of 
the back, and five vertebrae of the loins. 

T. — Now the next backbone is the sacrum (4). 
Notice how it is wedged in between these (i) two 
large hip bones. Below the sacrum is a small end- 
bone called the COCCyx (5). Do you notice any differ- 
ence in the ribs? 

Harry. — Some are loose at one end. 

T. — Are all of them attached behind? 

P. — They are. 

{Turn back to first skeleton plate.) 

T. — What part of the body does this flat bone (9, 10) 
occupy ? 

P.— The breest. 

T. — So it is called the breast-bone; but its more 
proper nam-e is the sternum. Let us see how many 
pairs of ribs are joined to the breast-bone. Count as I 
point to them. How many? 

P. — Seven pairs. 

T. — These seven pairs are called the true ribs. 
The other five pairs are not directly united to the 
breast-bone; but they are united to each other and. to 
the seventh true rib. These five pairs are called false 



UTLI NE LESSONS 185 

ribs. Notice that the true ribs seem to be united to 
the breast-bone by a separate piece of material. This 
separate piece is cartilage. Since the ribs are united to 
the sternum by this springy piece of cartilage, there is 
much greater protection to the delicate organs inside, 
since a blow on the chest is very much broken or soft- 
ened by the springy nature of the chest wall. Besides, 
this arrangement gives the chest a much easier motion 
in breathing, as we shall learn hereafter. Have we 
spoken of all the bones of the trunk .^ 

Car7'ie. — What are those large bones at the lower 
part of the trunk'* 

T. — These (3) large bones make a wide bowl-shaped 
support for the contents of the abdomen, and a firm 
place of attachment for the bones of the lower limb?. 
You may remember them for the present as the hip- 
bones. Now let us see what you know about the 
trunk. How many bones in the trunk.? 

P.— Fifty-three. 

T. — What important organs are contained in the 
trunk? 

P. — Heart, lungs, stomach, liver, and clhers. 

T. — What is the upper part of the trT»nk called? 

P.— The chest. 

T. — The lower part? 

P. — The abdomen. 

T. — On what strong pillar of bones does the pead 
rest? 

P. — On the spinal column, or backbone. 

T. — How many bones in the spin<il column? 

P. — Twenty -six. 

T. — How are thev united? 



186 ELEMENTAR Y PHYSIOLOG Y. 

P. — There are cushions of softer material placed 
between them. 

T. — What is each one of these bones called? 

P. — A vertebra. 

T. — What can you say about the number of ribs? 

Fj-ank, — There are twelve pairs; seven pairs are 
true ribs attached in front to the breast-bone; five pairs 
are false ribs, not directly attached to the breast-bone. 

T. — Why should these bones (3) be so large? 

P. — To support the organs in the abdomen and to 
give a firm attachment to the bones of the lower limbs. 

EXERCISE VI. 

BACK VIEW OF THE SKELETON. 

T. — What is this part to which the arms are attached 
called ? 

P. — The shoulder. 

T. — What do you notice about this (13) bone? 

P. — It is very broad and flat. 

T. — It is commonly called the shoulder-olade. 
( Turn to first skeleton chart. ) 

T. — This bone (8) is called the collar-bone. I give 
you the common namts now; at the proper time, here- 
after, you ^vill learn their scientific names. The collar- 
bone rests, as we see, at one end against the breast-bone 
and at the other against the shoulder- bone. Have you 
any idea what the use of this bone may be? 

David, — It keeps the shoulders braced apart. 

Ralph,—! should think it would keep the shoulders 
from resting too heavily on the ribs of the chest. 

T. — You are both right. All grasp firmly the bone 



ouTLi: /-; LESsoxs 187 

of your upper arm. This (i) is the bone you feel. 
This large bone is called the humerus. What is this 
joint at its lower end? 

P. — The elbow. 

T. — How many bones are in the fore-arm? 

P.— Two (2, 3). 

T. — What is this part (4) of the arm called ? 

P.— The Wrist. 

T. — Robert, will you step to the chart and count the 
small bones which form the wrist? (Robert counts 
eight.) NoAV count the bones in the middle or jDalm 
of the hand as they are shown on the left hand, on the 
chart. (Robert counts five.) Now count the bones in 
the fingers. (Robert counts two in the thumb and 
three in each finger — fourteen in all.) 

T. — Now we will notice how these bones are bound 
to each other. They seem to be held together by 
strong cords, as w^e see here at this wrist [left ariJi)^ 
betw^een the armbones, at the elbow, and at the 
shoulder. These strong bone-binding cords are called 
ligaments. They are so strong that sometimes the 
bones themselves w^ill break easier than the ligaments 
w^hich bind them together. Now let us review the 
lesson. What is this bone called (16)? 

P. — The shoulder-blade. 

T. — Why should it be so strong? 

P. — Because it supports the arms. 

T.— Name this (8) bone. 

P. — The collar-bone. 

(Draw out, by questions, its use.) 

T. — Do you remember the name of this bone? 

P. — The humerus. 



188 ELEMENTAR Y PHYSIOLOGY. 

T. — How many bones in the fore-arm? 

p._Two. 

• T. — In the wrist ? 

P.— Eight. 

T.— In the middle hand? 

P._Five. 

T. — In the fingers of each hand? 

P — Fourteen. 

T. — Now who will tell me first how many bones in 
collar, shoulder, arm and hand ? 

Harry, — Thirty-two. 

T. — A very ready answer. So how many bones in 
both of the upper extremities? 

P, — Sixty-four. 

EXERCISE VII. 

FIRST SKELETON CHART. 

Now we will study the lower extremities. What do 
you notice about this bone? 

Maggie, — It is the largest bone in the body. 

T. — It is both the largest and the strongest bone in 
the body. It is called the femur. To what is it con- 
nected above? 

P. — To the large hio^bone. 

T. — So this (2) is called the hip-joint. What is the 
joint at the lower end of the femur called? 

P. — The knee-joint. 

T.— As we see here (XIV, XV, XVI,) the large leg- 
bone is bound to the hip-bone by the strongest liga- 
ments of ^^he body. Lillie, what do you notice about 
this knee-ioint? 



OUTLINE LESSONS, ] 89 

Lillie, — There seems to be an extra little bone 
there. 

T. — Yes; this round, flat bone (2) is called the knee- 
pan. It protects the knee-joint. How many bones in 
the lower leg? 

p —Two. 

T. — What difference do you see in them ? 

P. — One is a very strong bone, and the other is quite 
slender. 

T What is the back part of the foot called? 

P,— The heel. 

T. — What part is just in front of the heel? 

P. — The instep. 

T. — There are seven bones in the heel and instep, 
five in the middle, and fourteen in the toes, of each foot. 
Edith, will you tell us how many bones there are in 
each lower limb. 

^^^M.— Thirty. 

T. — You have counted correctly. That would make 
how many bones in both of the lower extremities? 

Edith, — Sixty. 

T. — Now, class, what are the four divisions of the 
skeleton? 

P. — The head, the trunk, the upper limbs and the 
lower limbs. 

T. — How many bones did we find in the head? 

P.— Thirty. 

T. — How many in the trunk? 

P.— Fifty-three. 

T. — How many in the upper extremities? 

P. — Sixty-four. 

T. — How many in the lower extremities? 



190 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

P.— Sixty. 

T. — What is the sum of 304-53 + 64 + 60? 

P. — "^wo hundred and seven. 

T. — There is one more extra bone at the root of the 
tongue. This would make how many in the whole 
body ? 

P. — Two hundred and eight. 

EXERCISE VIII. 

CHART OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

T. — We will now learn about the muscles of the 
body. What do you notice about this figure of the 
body which is now before us? 

James, — It looks very different from the skeleton. 

Addie, — It looks more like the real body. 

Ethel, — The bones are nearly all covered up. 

T. — Your answers are all quite good. These red 
colored parts on this chart represent muscles of the 
body. What does their appearance remind you of? 

Fannie, — They look like raw lean meat. 

T. — And that is what the muscles of the body are, 
Fannie. The muscles form the raw, lean flesh of the 
body. They are made of many strings or fibers, some- 
thing like a skein of yarn. You can see these strands 
or muscle-fibers in a piece of beef that has been well 
cooked. Such a piece of meat may be pulled into 
string-like strands. The next time you have some cold 
cooked beef on your table, at home, I wish you to sep- 
arate a small piece into its muscular fibers. 

Charles, — Are all muscles red? 

T. — Muscle of beef, as we get it from the market, is 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 191 

quite red. The muscle of our bodies is also red, but 
not quite so red as raw beef. Muscle of pork, as you 
know, is of a much paler red. Harry, what have you 
noticed about the meat on the breast bone of a chicken, 
at your dinner table? 

Harry, — It is nearly whit^. 

T. — So not all muscle is red. But it is generally red. 

William, — What is the use of the muscles? 

T. — That is a very proper question, for which we 
are just ready. The use of the bones, as we have 
learned, is to form the framework of the body The 
use of the muscles is to move parts of the body, or the 
whole of the body. For this purpose the muscles are 
attached to the bones. 

Fred. — How can the muscles move the bones? 

T. — I will try to explain it to you. The threads 
or fibers of each muscle have the power of shortening 
up lengthwise and swelling out sideways. What 
effect would that have on the whole muscle? 

Fred. — It would shorten and thicken the muscle. 

T. — Exactly. Now, if such a muscle is fastened at 
its two ends to different bones, what will happen when 
the muscle shortens up? 

Edith, — It will move the bones. 

T. — Just so; all the movements of the body, no mat- 
ter how vigorous or how slight they may be, are pro- 
duced by such a shortening of muscles. This shorten- 
ing of a muscle, in pulling or moving any part of the 
body, is called contraction. 

Albert, — But how does a bone get back to its first 
place ? 

T. — The muscle which has contracted or shortened 



192 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

to move it, must now lengthen out to let the bone back; 
at the same time some other muscle or muscles must 
contract or shorten to draw the bone back. Do you 
understand this, Albert? 

Albert. — I do. 

T. — The lengthening of a muscle to let a bone, or 
other part which it has moved back, to its former posi- 
tion, is called relaxation. Now let us gather up 
what we have so far learned about the muscles. What 
part of the body do the muscles form? 

P.— The lean flesh of the body. 

T. — Of what is a muscle composed? 

P. — Of many fine threads or fibers. 

T. — What is the color of the muscles of our bodies? 

P.— Red. 

T. — Are the muscles of all animals red? 

P. — They are not. But the muscles are generally 
red. 

T. — What is the work of the muscles? 

P. — To move the whole body, or one or more of its 
parts. 

T. — How do the muscles produce motion? 

P. — By shortening up lengthwise and swelling out 
sideways they pull on the parts to which they are 
attached. 

T. — What is the shortening up of a muscle called? 

P . — Contraction. 

T. — What is the return of the muscle to its usual 
length called ? 

P. — Relaxation. 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 193 

EXERCISE IX. 

CHART OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

T. — In our last lesson we learned of what muscles 
are composed, what their work is, and how they act to 
move any part of the body. We may now get a still 
better idea of the great work which our muscles p jrform 
by studying a few of them. There are 527 muscles 
in your body. Let us look at this (i) one. Only 
its front part is shown on the chart. It is fastened 
behind to the occipital bone. It passes over the top 
of the head forward, to the skin of the forehead. Now, 
being fastened to that firm bone behind, and in front to 
the skin of the forehead and eyebrows, what effect do 
you think its contraction or shortening would produce? 

jfennie, — I think it would move the skin on the fore- 
head. 

Lizzie, — I think it would raise the eyebrows. 

T. — You are both right. Let us make this muscle 
show us how it acts. Look at my head while I make 
this muscle contract. What do you see? 

P. — It wrinkles your forehead and raises your eye. 
brows. 

T. — That is precisely the work of the muscle. The 
names of most muscles are quite long and too hard for 
you to learn now. They are generally named accord- 
ing to the bones which they connect, or their shape, or 
the kind of motion which they produce. I will give 
you this one name of this (i) first muscle which we are 
studying, as a specimen. It is called the OCCipitO- 
f rontalis muscle. I will write this name on the board. 
What do you notice about this name? 



19 J: ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

Grace, — It is a double name. 

T. — So it is. Can any of you see why this muscle 
was probably called the occipito-frontalis muscle? 
(Hands up). Well, George, what do you say? 

George, — Because it goes from the occipital bone to 
the front part of the head. 

T. — Very well; that accounts for its name, exactly. 
What do you observe about this (15) muscle? 

Ralph, — It is nearly circular and passes quite around 
the mouth. 

T. — What do you suppose is the effect of its con- 
traction ? 

Ralph, — I should think it would clo-se the mouth. 

T. — You are right. When it contracts gently, it 
closes the mouth, and when it contracts strongly, it 
puckers the lips. {Illustrate,^ Do you see any other 
muscle of the same shape anywhere? 

Laura, — There is one like it around the eye. 

T. — What must be its use? 

Laura, — -To close the eyes? 

T. — Yes; it closes the eyes. 

Hold your left arm out straight. Now grasp it 
firmly with your right hand a little above the elbow. 
Now draw your fore-arm up towards your shoulder. 
What do you feel ? 

Robert, — I feel my arm swell out v^here I hold it. 

(Let all the members of the class be sure that they 
feel the action of the muscle.) 

T. — Frank, what have w^e learned to be the effect on 
a muscle when it swells out sideways? 

Frank, — It gets shorter. 

T. — Right; and getting shorter, what does this mus- 
cle which you feel do? 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 195 

Frank, — It brings the arm up towards the shoulder. 

T. — (Pointing to (j4) upper arm.) This is the mus- 
cle whose action you have felt. So the work of this 
muscle is what? 

P. — To draw the fore-arm towards the shoulder. 

T. — Bring your arm towards the shoulder again. 
Grasp it very firmly, as before. Now slowly straighten 
the arm. What do you feel? 

Ralph. — I feel the swelling of a muscle on the back 
of my arm. 

T. — That was the action of this (36) muscle on the 
back part of the arm. While it contracts, the muscle 
of which we spoke before relaxes. So by this r,ction 
of these two muscles, the fore-arm is brought back into 
a straight position. 

This will be sufficient to show you how the muscles 
work. Just notice, before we close this exercise, these 
many strong muscles of the shoulder, trunk and lower 
limbs. Let me show you the longest muscle in the 
whole body. Here (60) it is. It is commonly called 
the tailor muscle because its use is to cross the legs, 
as tailors are accustomed to do. 

EXERCISE X. 

It is suggested to the teacher that this exercise be 
devoted to a familiar conversational lesson on the prop- 
er care and use of the muscles. Impress the pupils 
with the truth that while they are learning many 
things about the structure and use of the different parts 
of the body, it is no less important to learn how prop- 
erly to train, and how to take good cai;p of these 



196 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

organs. Impress them with the fact that our health, 
and consequently much of our comfort and happiness, 
and even our lives depend upon such care. Teach 
them that every organ of the body is liable to injury 
from misuse — that is, from either too much use or too 
little use. Explain to them w^hat habits and acts vv^ill 
deform and w^eaken the bony framew^ork of the body, 
especially in the years of childhood and early youth, 
w^hen the w^hole bony system is comparatively tender 
and flexible. Explain how bad positions in sitting, 
standing or walking will permanently misshape the 
body. 

So of the muscular system. Show the pupils, by 
familiar illustrative references, what plumpness and 
vigor proper exercise gives to the muscles. The well 
developed arm of the blacksmith will afford you a good 
illustration. On the other hand, caution your pupils 
against all forms of exercise which are too violent, or 
which tax severely only a few muscles. That kind of 
play, exercise or labor is most healthful which calls 
into use the moderate action of the greatest number of 
muscles. The strong muscles of the robust laborer 
come from a general use of his limbs and his trunk. 

For farther suggestions concerning this lesson on the 
hygiene of the muscles, see pages 25 and 26 of this 
book. 

EXERCISE XI. 

CHART OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

T. — We now come to a very interesting part of the 
study of the body. We have learned about the bony 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 197 

framework of the skeleton. We have also learned 
about the muscles which cover the skeleton and move 
its different parts. The figure of the body which is 
now before us clearly shows us some parts and organs 
which we have not met in our study, so far. What 
new features do you observe on this plate? 
( Turn face section aside,) 

Harry, — There are a number of blue lines running 
all through the figure. Some of them are quite large 
and others are very small. 

Fred. — There are a great many yellow and white 
lines running through it in all directions. 

Hattie, — The head seems to be cut through the middle 
from the top. 

T. — I am very glad for the observations which you 
have made. The blue lines which Harry has observed 
are blood-vessels of which we shall learn when we study 
the next chart. These " yellow and white lines " 
which Fred has mentioned, are parts of the great 
nervous system of the body. What new or strange 
word did you just hear me mention? 

Ada, — System. You spoke of the great nervous 
system. 

T. — By this word *' system" we mean, in physiology, 
all those parts or organs of the body which work to- 
gether for the same general purpose. We first studied 
the bony system. Then we studied the muscular 
system. Now we Avill study the nervous system. All 
these yellow and white lines represent nerves. The 
head, as Hattie has told us, is represented as cut through 
to show us the wonderful structure of the main organ 
of the nervous system. What do you suppose this (i) 
represents? 



198 ELEMENTARY PHY8I0L0G F. 

JPupils. — The brain. 

T, — Right. Notice how it fills the whole of the 
upper part of the head. What is the upper part of the 
head called? 

Pupils, — The skull. 

T. — Yes. What other name did we give to the 
skull? 

Pupils. — The brain-box. 

T. — The brain is a very soft and delicate organ. If 
it were not enclosed as snugly and as safely as it is, in 
the skull, it would fall apart from its own weight. 
Really, there are two important divisions of the brain, 
one of which is much larger than the other, so that we 
sometimes speak of the large brain and the small brain. 
This (i) white part represents the larger brain. It 
fills the front and upper part of the skull. This (2) 
darker part represents the smaller brain. It lies be- 
hind and below the larger brain. When this smaller 
brain is cut through as represented here, its inside 
structure shows a beautiful figure, which, as you see 
(3) reminds one very much of a tree. 

Frank, — Is that which passes down through the back 
also a part of the brain ? 

T. — That is called the spinal cord. It is composed 
of the same kind of substance as the brain. From the 
brain and from this spinal cord branch out all these nu- 
merous nerves which go to every part of the body. 
What parts of the nervous system have we now 
spoken of? 

P. — The brain, the spinal cord and the nerves. 

T. — Correct. These are the organs of the nervous 
system. Now I will try to help you understand some- 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 199 

thing about the use of this sy!?tem. What did we learn 
the use of the muscles to be? 

P. — To move the different pa^ts of the body. 

T. — Now, it is by means of this nervous system that 
the mind, which largely controls the body, can tell the 
muscles how to act. Every muscle fiber is in connec- 
tion with one of these nerve lines. At the other end 
each nerve is either directly connected with the brain 
or with the spinal cord, and through it with the brain. 
vSo you see the brain may be called the capital of the 
nervous system. The mind acts on the body directly 
through the brain. It also gets all its feelings or im- 
pressions of pain or pleasure from without, through the 
brain. One set of nerves runs from the brain or spinal 
cord to the muscles. Now, whenever a muscle is to 
act, every fiber of it, in some wonderful way, gets a 
message over its nerve line, from the brain, directing it 
precisely how much to contractor relax. For example, 
you make up your mind to close your eyes. The brain 
sends the mind's order over the nerve lines which go to 
the fibers of the circular muscle, which we have found 
to lie around the eye, and promptly the eye-lids close. 
There are two kinds of nerves. The nerves which 
carry the mind's messages .to the muscles are called 
nerves of motion. Another set of nerves are called 
nerves of feeling. They carry the impressions from 
the body to the brain. These nerves are distributed so 
thickly near the surface of the body, in the skin, that it 
would be almost impossible to find a point on the body 
where the prick of a pin would not be felt. {Here 
use the illustrations suggested on page J5.) 

But there are some movements of certain organs of 



200 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

the body which the mind does not control. For 
instance, the beating of the heart and the breathing of 
the lungs must be kept up steadily as long as we live. 
If the muscles which produce the beating of the heart 
and the breathing movements of the chest must always 
be directed by the mind, we could think of nothing 
else, and it would be death to fall asleep. So the Cre- 
ator has wisely provided that certain parts of the nerv- 
ous system constantly and faithfully direct all such mus- 
cular operations which must be kept up constantly, 
without any attention from the mind. 

EXERCISE XII. 

MANIKIN OF THE HEAD. 

T. — I am now going to show you a very interesting 
illustration of the location and appearance of the brain. 
Here we have a collection of five manikins. A mani- 
kin is a skillful arrangement of the parts or organs of 
the body in their proper natural order and places, so 
that w^e are enabled by the use of such a manikin to 
take the body apart, as it were, to see how each part is 
located and how it appears. This is a manikin of the 
head. What does this first outside figure show? 

P. — The face and hair. 

T. — Now we will take off the skin and hair by lay- 
ing back this section. (Xoy section back,) How dif- 
ferent the head looks when the skin and hair are taken 
off! Addie, will you tell us what you notice about this 
view of the head? 

Addie, — It shows a good many muscles. 

T. — So it does. Some of these muscles of the head lie 



OUTLINE LESSONS, 201 

very ck^- ) under the skin, while some are more deeply 
located These blue and bright-red parts represent 
blood- Vvssels, of which we shall learn later on. Now 
we will i\ move these muscles and blood-vessels by lay- 
ing this section aside. ( Turn section.^ What do you 
observe now? 

Charles, — I think those must be the bones of the 
skull. 

T. — You are right, Charles. What else does this 
section show? 

P. — Some blood-vessels and nerves. 

T. — What did we start out to find? 

P The brain. 

T. — Where did we learn the brain to be located? 

P.— In the skull. 

T. — So let us now remove these skull bones. Lay 
section aside). Here the brain appears; but the large 
brain is here shown as cut in two, while the 
smaller brain (u) shows its natural outside appearance. 
Let us get a deeper view of it. {Turn sectio?i) 
Here we see the brain as it appears when cut through 
the middle of the head from front to back. Notice 
how wavy its surface appears, how the blood-vessels 
run all through it, arid how much like the figure of a 
tree the surface of the small brain appears, when cut 
through. What do you suppose this (124, 150) large 
cord of nervous matter is, which connects with the 
brain above and passes down through the back bone? 

P. — The spinal cord. 

T. — Now let us carefully notice one more thing be- 
fore we turn from this manikin. See how the nerves 
pass out from the brain to go to various parts and 



202 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

organs — some to the eye, some to the nose, some to the 
tongue and teeth, and others to other parts. I wish 
you especially to remember this last observation, as it 
will help you the better to understand our next lesson. 

EXERCISE xrii. 

T. — We have learned that the nerves of feeling are 
found in all parts of the body. So v^e say the sense 
of feeling is distributed pver the whole body. But we 
have four other kinds of nervous sensation besides 
ordinary feeling. Altogether, they are called the 
five senses. They are feeling, hearing, seeing, 
tasting, and smelling. All of these except feel- 
ing are called special senses, because each has a speci <\ 
organ and a special nerve to receive a special impres- 
sion and carry it to the brain to be perceived by the 
mind. I will first try to teach you something about 
the sense of hearing. 

{Referring to the diagram of the ear on chart of nerv- 
ous system^ What does this (i) seem to represent? 

P. — An ear. 

T. — Yes ; this is a view of the whole structure of the 
ear. It shows not only this (i) outside part of the ear, 
which we are so accustomed to see, but also this part 
(3) called the ear-tube, which leads into the temporal 
bone of the head, in which these (3-17) wonderful 
parts of the inner ear are so safely hidden away from 
danger. What was the last thing I asked you to ob- 
serve when we studied the brain, in the manikin of the 
head? 

P. — That nerves go directly out from the brain to 
different parts. 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 203 

T. — Right. Those nerves which we have spoken 
of as nerves of special sensa, ion all go out from the brain. 
One of these is the special nerve of hearing. It goes 
from the brain to the ear. Here {yellow -colored nerve 
branch) we see a part of this nerve of hearing connect 
ing with the apparatus of the ear. This nerve is 
affected only by sound. But in order that it may be 
properly impressed by sounds, a special instrument is 
necessary to carry the sound in a proper manner to the 
nerve. This instrument is the ear. 

Charles — A part of the ear reminds me very much 
of a funnel. ' 

T. — Yes; we may call it a sound funnel. But the 
most wonderful structure of the ear is this (3-17) inside 
apparatus. When you are somewhat farther advanced 
in physiology, you will be prepared to understand the 
st'^ucture and use of all these delicate parts of the ear. 
For the present, please remember only this: that the 
sounds which are collected by the ear-funnel and tube 
are passed through these tubes and chambers of the inner 
ear in such a way that a proper impression is made on 
this nerve of hearing. This nerve then conveys such 
impressions to the brain, where they are received by the 
mind. It is in this way that the mind receives through 
this nerve and its instrument, the ear, all the delights 
of music, the instruction of spoken words, the songs of 
birds, and the roar of the thunder, with all the hundreds 
of various sounds and noises which we hear every day. 

Now, Charles, will you tell us what you understand 
to be the use of the ear? 

Charles, — To gather sound-waves and carry them to 
the nerve of hearing. 



204 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

T. — Correct. Fannie, Avhat is the use of the nerve 
of hearing? 

Fannie. — To carry the impression of sound to the 
brain. 

T. — Is the nerve of hearing affected by anything 
else besides sound -vs^aves? 

P. — It is not. 

T. — So we call it what kind of a nerve? 

P. — A nerve of special sensation. 

T. — Now we will talk about another very important 
nerve of special sensation. This figure (Eye figure. 
Chart of Nervous System) represents the eye cut 
through so as to give us a view of its inside parts. 
The eye is the instrument of sight. As the nerve 
of hearing passes from the brain to the ear, so the 
nerve of sight passes from the brain to the eye. What 
must come to the eve in order that w^e may see? 

P.— Light. 

T, — ^Yes; the nerve of sight is not at all affected by 
sound, and the nerve of hearing is not affected by 
light. We found how carefully the ear is hidden away 
from danger in the little caves of the temporal bone of 
the head. So, by looking each other in the face, v^e 
observe how carefully the eye is lodged in hollow 
places among the upper bones of the face and under 
the over-hanging bone of the forehead. But what else 
do you see over the eye for its protection? 

P. — The eyebrows. 

T. — And what more? 

p._The eyelids. 

T. — Anything more? 

P. — The eyelashes. 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 205 

T. — Yes; all these are for the protection of the eye. 

(Explain how. See " Protection of the Eye," page 
42.) 

There are a number of muscles attached to the eye- 
ball. By the action of these muscles, the eye is prop- 
erly directed to the objects which we wish to see. Then 
a part of the light which falls upon the eye enters 
through the little opening which you see in the center 
of the eyeball when you look directly into another per- 
son's eye. Then the wonderful parts of the inside of 
the eye affect the light in such a way as to make a pic- 
ture of the thing or things we see, on the br >ad end of 
the nerv e of sight on the inside of the back part of the 
eye. This tiny picture which is thus made, so affects 
the nerve that it carries an impression to the brain from 
which the mind gets a correct view of the appearance 
of the object from which the light came to the eye. 
When you are farther advanced, you will be able to 
understand all the parts of the eye, by which this won- 
derful picture-making is done. 

(If the teacher thinks it advisable, he can refer to the 
manikin of the eye, and use the description found on 
pages 42-47.) 

Another special nerve is the nerve of taste. It goes 
from the brain to the tongue and other parts of the 
mouth. The tongue is the chief instrument of taste. 
This figure {^Figure of " Sense of Taste^'* Nerv- 
ous Chart) shows how the very numerous branches 
of the nerve of taste go to all parts of the tongue and 
mouth. These nerves are affected by the taste or flavor 
of things which are brought into the mouth, or touched 
with the tongue. 



206 



ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 



Now we have spoken of three of the four special 
nerves. Can you name them? 

P. — The nerve of hearing, the nerve of sight, and 
the nerve of taste. 

T. — What do you suppose is the fourth special 
nerve? 

P. — The nerve of smell. 

T. — Yes; and I feel sure that you can tell me what 
the special instrument of this nerve is? 

P. — The nose. 

T — Correct. This figure (" Sense of Smeir"*) 
represents the nose cut in two, to show us what a large 
number of branches of the nerve of smell are spread all 
over its inside parts. 

(Review this exercise well.) 

EXERCISE XIV. 

The teacher will find it to be an excellent plan to 
make this exercise a black-board outline review. Such 
an outline review impresses the main facts learned 
strongly upon the pupils' minds. By careful question- 
ing, draw out from the pupils the leading facts learned 
about each of the three great systems which have so 
far been studied, and arrange them on the board, in 
outline form, as near as may be, as follows: 

r 208 

Long, flat, curved, round, etc, 
f Head. 
Trunk. 
THE BONY . Uomposed j . Upper extrem- 

SYSTEM. 1 of Bones Four ] ities. 

Groups. Lower extrem- 

is ities. 
f To give shape to the body. 
To enclose and protect delicate organs. 
To afford places of attachment for the 
muscles. 



Uses 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 



207 



THE 
MUSCULAR i 
SYSTEM. 



THE 

NERVOUS 

SYSTEM. 



f Lean meat. 
Composed of J Have many fibers. 

Muscles. I Power of contraction. 
(^Attached to the bones. 

Use -{ To move the different parts of the body. 



Composed of 



( Brain. 

< Spinal cord. 

( Nerves. 



Uses 



^To serve the mind and brain in the con- 
trol of the action of the muscles. 
To give us sensations of touch or feel- 
ing, sound, sight, taste and smell. 



EXERCISE XV. 



CHART OF VEINS AND ARTERIES. 

T. — How many and what great systems of the body 
have we so far studied? 

P. — Three; the bony system, the muscular system 
and the nervous system. 

T. — What new features do you see in the figure of 
the body before us? 

P. — There are a great many blue and red tubes 
running in all directions through it. 

T. — We merely noticed some such blue lines on the 
chart which we studied before. What did we call 
them? 

P. — Blood-vessels. 

T. — This chart shows us quite a number of the blood- 
vessels of the body. The blue vessels represent one 
kind of blood. vessels and the red another kind. Why 
should they be called blood-vessels? 

Mary. — Because they contain blood. 

T. — Right; the blood in our bodies is constantly 



20 : ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

flow .2g through these blood-vessels, to and from every 
part i?nd organ. Let me try to explain to you w^hy the 
bloo 1 is constantly flowing through the body in these 
blood-vessels. {^Here use^as an explanation^ the Jirst 
tivn paragraphs of the circulatory system^ pages 

55-56:) 

The chief organ of the blood-circulating system is 
the heart (S). Notice w^here the heart is situated in 
the body. What do you observe about its location.'* 

George, — It is in the upper part of the trunk. 

T. — Can some one name its place more precisely 
than that? 

Fannie, — It is in the chest. 

T. — Harry, can you describe its position still more 
accurately ? 

Harry, — I should say that the heart lies a little be- 
low and to the le:ft of the middle of the chest. 

T. — Very good. Now since you have made such a 
fine observatioii, I will show you at another place, 
exactly how thu h.^p.rt is placed in the body. {Turn to 
body maitikin and t 'ow its position,^ 

Ralph — How lar^;? is a person's heart? 

T. — A man's heart :s about as large as his fist. It is 
a very strong muscular organ. It has four hollow 
places in it. These are called chambers or blood 
pockets. Two of these chambers are on the right side 
of the heart and two are on the left side. 

The use of the s rong muscle walls of the heart is to 
drive the blood in its course to all parts of the body 
from the top of the head to the tips of the toes. The 
blood from the right side of the heart is driven through 
blood-vessels to the lungs, to be purified, as we shall 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 209 

soon learn more particularly. From the left side of 
the heart, the blood is carried through blood-vessels to 
all parts of the body to carry nourishment — that is, 
building and repairing material — wherever it is needed. 

These red blood-vessels, large and small, (15, 71), 
are arteries. These arteries carry pure blood from 
the heart to all parts of the body. This great artery 
(15) v^hich starts from the heart is called the aorta. 
It branches off like a tree into many smaller arteries. 
What do you suppose to be the yse of these arteries 
(19, 21) w^hich pass up through the neck? 

P. — To carry pure blood to the head. 

T. — Correct. Please notice into w^hat a w^onderful 
net-v^ork of fine arteries these neck arteries divide all 
through the head. What seems to be the use of this 
artery (55)? 

P. — To carry pure blood to the arm. 

T. — Right; notice how it branches off into many 
smaller branches. A little above the heart — about here 
(17) — the great aorta artery bends downward through 
the inside of the body, as we see it here (34). Then 
here in the lower part of the abdomen it divides into 
two great branches, for what purpose, do you suppose.^ 

P. — To send arteries into both of the lower limbs. 

T. — Yes; you now have some idea how the pure 
blood gets from the heart to all parts of the body 
through the arteries. 

As the blood passes through the body it becomes im- 
pure, as you will understand more fully hereafter. 
This impure blood is gathered up by the veins and 
carried back to the heart. The heart then drives it on 
to the lungs where it is purified. 



212 ELEMENTAR Y PHY8I0L0O Y. 

purities in exchange. Then it is gathered up by the 
veins. In the lower part of the body these veins 
gather into this (51) large ascending vein. In the 
upper part of the body they gather into this (27) large 
descending vein. Finally, both these laree veins 
empty into the right upper chamber of the heart. 

i^Drill the pupils thoroughly on this full route of 
the blood until they can individuallv describe it,) 

EXERCISE XVII. 

CHART OF VEINS AND ARTERIES. 

T. — In our last lesson we learned about the course 
of the blood through the body. What change comes 
over it as it passes through the system? 

P. — It becomes impure. 

T. — What vessels gather it up after it has become 
impure? 

P. — The veins. 

T. — Where do the veins carry it to? 

P. — To the right upper chamber of the heart. 

T. — What seems necessary to be done before it goes 
through the body again? 

P. — It must be purified. 

T. — Yes; and this purifying of the blood is per- 
formed in the lungs. What carries the impure blood 
from the heart to the lungs? 

P. — A large artery. 

T. — Yes; this (16) is the artery you speak of. We 
see here how the lungs are situated (R), and how the 
artery which brings the impure blood from the heart, 
sends its branches all through them. What can you say 
of the location of the lungs? 



UTLINE LESSONS, 213 

Edward, — They are in the chest. 

Nellie, — They he on both sides of the heart. 

T. — Yes, or perhaps better said, over and around the 
heart. These two organs — the lungs and the heart — 
fill the whole cavity of the chest. Let us now turn to 
the manikin of the body and get a still more interest- 
ing view of the place and surroundings of the lungs. 

(Turn to the body-manikin. As you lay aside the 
outer parts slowly, speak of removing the skin, then the 
outer muscles, then the ribs, when the lungs will lie 
before you. Then, while the lungs are thus exposed 
before the class, speak of their structure, and of the 
wind-pipe and air-tubes as given on pages 70-71.) 

Here, in the lungs, the oxygen of the air which we 
breathe unites with the blood. At the same time the 
impurities of the blood pass from it into these air tubes, 
and are thrown off with the breath which escapes. In 
this way the blood is rid of the impure matter, and 
changed from its dark color to.a bright red, and then is 
again fit to be driven by the heart to all parts of the 
body. Do you remember how the blood gets back to 
the heart from the lungs? 

P. — It is carried back by large veins. 

T. — To which side of the heart? 

P.— To the left side. 

T; — Through what vessels does the heart then drive 
it to all parts of the body? 

P. — Through the arteries. 

EXERCISE XVIII. 

It is suggested that this exercise be devoted to a famil- 
iar conversational lesson on proper breathing and 



214 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

good ventilation. Explain how we breathe as taught 
on page 73. Show that anything which interferes to 
prevent taking in full breaths of air is injurious. (See 
" Health of the Respiratory Organs^'^ P^g^ 74«) I^^ 
the lungs the life-giving oxygen is taken away from 
the air. To the unused portion of the air are added the 
impurities discharged from the blood in the lungs. 
Show the consequence of this foul, cast-off breath 
accumulating in a room without sufficient supply of 
pure, fresh air. Impress thoroughly and illustrate 
well, from your own knowledge, and in your own way, 
the important principles of good ventilation. {See also 
" Impurities of the Breath^'^ and '' Ventilation " on 
page 76). 

EXERCISE XIX. 

T. — While we were learning about the blood — its 
circulation through the body, and its purification in the 
lungs — this question must have come to your minds: 
Where does the body-building and body-repairing 
material which the blood carries to all parts come from? 
Can any one of you give me the proper answer to this 
question ? 

Harry, — It comes from the food we eat. 

T. — You are quite right, Harry. But blood is so 
different from the food which we eat, that great 
changes must be necessary before the material of our 
food is fit to be laid up in our bodies as muscle, or 
bone, or nervous matter. Besides, not all of the food 
which we eat is fit for body-building or body repairing. 
Some parts of it are quite useless. The separation of 
such useless food -portions from the useful parts, and 



UTLINE LESSONS. 215 

the proper preparation of the useful parts for body 
material is called digestion. Digestion is one of the 
most important processes which take place in the body. 
Upon a good digestion of our food, much of our com- 
fort, our health and our very lives depend. So the 
Creator has furnished the body w^ith a large number of 
important organs to perform this w^ork, step by step. 
The organs which perform the w^ork of digestion are 
called the digestive system. Now let us see what we 
can learn about the manner in which the food is 
digested. 

(Refer to Chart of the Circulation,) 

T. — Where is the food placed in eating? 

P. — Into the mouth. 

T. — Yes ; in the mouth the first and second steps of 
digestion are performed. What happens to the food 
in the mouth? 

P. — It is chewed by the teeth. 

T. — Right. This is the first step of digestion. But 
while the teeth are chewing the food, it is mixed with 
saliva. This is a watery-like juice which flows into 
the mouth from little organs which lie at different 
places near the mouth. These little organs prepare 
this saliva from the blood for this very purpose of 
assisting in digestion — that is, in preparing the food 
for the nourishment of the body. This mixing of the 
food with saliva is the second step in digestion. Now 
when the food has been properly chewed and mixed 
with saliva, in the mouth, what do you suppose is thff 
third step? 

George. — I should think it would then be ready to be 
swallowed? 



216 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 

T. — You are right, George. In swallowing the food, 
it passes down through this (i) tube into this organ (2). 
Do you know the name of this organ? 

P. — The stomach. 

T. — This gives us a good view of the shape of the 
stomach and also of its outside and inside appearance. 
But we will turn to the body-manikin to see exactly 
where the stomach lies. {JDo so,) 

T. — In the stomach the food is much changed. 
How this change is produced, you will learn more fully, 
later on. The change which takes place in the food 
in the stomach is called the fourth step of digestion. 

By the time this fourth step of digestion is reached, 
some of the more watery portions of the food are ready 
to be taken into the blood. So numerous little veins 
[See blue veinlets on stomach figure) which are dis- 
tributed throughout the stomach walls, take up these 
prepared food portions and carry it directly into the 
circulatory system. 

The remaining undigested food parts now pass on to 
the fifth step of digestion. They pass out through 
this (5) end of the stomach through a curious little 
muscle gate which refuses the food to pass out until 
it is ready for this new step in the process. As it passes 
out of the stomach, the food enters the intestines (4). 
Here it is still more changed by being acted upon by 
two substances which are also specially prepared from 
the blood, to help in this work of digestion. One of 
these two substances comes from this organ (turn to 
body -manikin) l3^ing back of the stomach, called the 
pancreas (59). The other substance, called bile, is 
made from the blood by the liver. Here lies this large 



OUTLINE LESSONS. 



2:7 



organ toward the right side of the body over the 
stomach. Notice the large blood-vessels and the bile- 
sac within the liver. 

Here, in the upper part of the intestines, the useful 
part of the food is finally separated from the useless 
part and passes out of the intestine w^alls through little 
tubes and veins which carry it to the circulatory 
system, which distributes it to all parts of the body, 
where needed, as we have learned before. 



EXERCISE XX. 

Let this exercise be a blackboard outline review on 
the last three systems learned. Draw out the facts 
which, when written on the board, will stand as 
follows : 



THE DIGESTIVE 
SYSTEM. 



THE CIRCULA- 
TORY SYSTEM 



THE BLOOD PURI- 
FYING SYSTEM. 



Composed of 



Use 



r 



Composed of 



Use 



f Heart. 
J Arteries. 
I Veins. 
l^ Capillaries. 



To carry the blood to all 
parts of the body. 

Lungs. 

Wind-pipe. 

Air-tubes. 

] To purify the blood. 



f Mouth. 

Teeth. 

Tongue. 

Salivary glands. 
Composed of -{ Stomach. 

Liver. 

Intestines. 

Pancreas. 
[ Other organs. 



Use 



To prepare the food for 
the nourishment of the 
body. 



218 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, 

ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS. 

Having now suggested quite a number of exercises 
indicative of a practical method of conducting elemen- 
tary oral drills on six of the great systems of the 
body, it is believed by the authors, that by the time 
these exercises have been used, the teacher will have 
so well acquired the " run " of the method, that it will 
be unnecessary to add any farther exercises in this 
book. The teacher can draw plenty of facts from the 
lessons in the main part of this book, from the Aid 
and from other sources, for the illustration of any sub- 
ject which is chosen for any exercise. However, for 
the purpose of aiding the teacher in making such a 
choice of lesson-subjects as will be appropriate and in 
proper order, the following additional exercises are 
suggested: 

Exercise xxi. A familiar conversational talk on 
the health of the digestive organs; on eating too fast, 
too much or too frequently ; on eating indigestible food, 
and on the favorable effects of gentle exercise on 
digestion. 

Exercise xxii. On the structure of the skin — its 
two layers, blood-vessels, numerous nerve endings, 
perspiration glands and tubes, fat-cells, oil-glands, 
coloring- matter and hair growth, as illustrated in the 
upper left-hand figure on the chart of the circulation, 
and described in this book on pages 112— 117. 

Exercise xxiii. On the perspiration of the skin, by 
which a great amount of worn-out and poisonous mat- 
ter is expelled from the body, and on the need of clean, 
clothes and frequent bathing — that is, bodily clean- 
liness — to avoid disease and death. {See fages 11/-120.) 



ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 219 

Exercise xxiv. On the meaning of strong drink; 
how the different kinds of wine are made, and that they 
all are made "strong " by the alcohol which they con- 
tain. {^See pages 122-126.) 

Exercise xxv. How the beers are made and that 
the harmful substance in each kind of beer is alcohol. 
{^See pages I2']-I2<^.) 

Exercise xxvi. How the stronger liquors are pro- 
duced, and wherein they differ from the wines and 
beers. (^See pages i28-i2g^ 

Exercise xxvii. On the nature of alcohol — its 
physical properties, inflammability, low freezing point, 
greed for w^ater and its consequent tendency to harden 
and destroy many parts of the body. i^See pages I2j-- 
124.) 

Exercise xxviii. Effects of alcohol upon the body. 
First effect of physical excitement and second effect of 
phys'cal depression. {See pages JJ0-IJ4,) 

Exercise xxix. The drunken stage — the cause of 
the drunkard's stammering, stagfgering and squinting. 
{See pages 134-135. ) 

Exercise xxx. The " dead-drunk" condition. 
{See pages 133-136,) 

Exercise xxxi. Effects of alcohol on the stomach. 
{Refer to stomach plates and see pages 142-143,) 

Exercise xxxii. Effects upon the brain. {Refer to 
intemperance plates and see page 136,) 

Exercise xxxiii. Effects upon the liver and kidneys. 
{See figures of these organs on intem,perance plates and 
pages 143-146,) 

Exercise xxxiv. Tobacco and its effects upon the 
body. {See intemperance plates and pages 14"/—! 33.^ 



HOW TO USE THE AID. 



For the benefit of those teachers who desiie to use the 
Teachers' Anatomical Aid to the very best advantage to them- 
selves and their jjupils, we offer the following suggestions: 

1. For the purpose of an elementary oral drill of a class of 
beginners, the Aid will enable you to conduct the exercise on 
the "object lesson" plan. By this method, such class drills are 
made interesting and instructive, and the knowledge which the 
pupils thus acquire, though it is simple and elementary, will 
prove to be a well-laid stepping-stone to their later text-book 
study of physiology. 

2. During such a course of elementary oral instruction, the 
pupils use no book for study. They should come to the class- 
drill to learn the facts of the lesson which is taught, from the 
plain, practical statements of the teacher^ and from their own 
observation of the objects brought before them on the charts 
of the Aid, for the illustration of such facts and statements. 

3. This Manual will suggest to you, step by step, the proper 
order of such elementary lesson. You can safely follow the 
course of exercises for which it furnishes you material and chart 
references. However limited your experience may be, the 
material for an oral lesson, from day to day, is herein placed in 
your possession. With the book in your hands, and the Aid 
before you, you will be able to make a thorough private pre- 
paration, to fill your own mind with the facts pertaining to the 
subject of the intended exercise, and then, filled with enthusiasm, 
as well as information, to go before your pupils and present the 
lesson with confidence and success, without handling a book 
during such class exercise* 

4 Do not attempt too much at any one exercise. Adapt 
both the quality and quantity of your instruction to the age and 
capacity of your pupils. K few facts, taken in their proper 
order, and well taught, are worth more than many facts poorly 
taught by th« teacher, and consequently, poorly understood 
and soon quite foigotten by the pupil. 



5. When this Manual is used as a text-book by the pupils, 
the teacher should assign for each lesson only so many topics 
as the pupils can thoroughly master. It is suggested that at 
recitation each subject should first be described, "topically," 
as accurately and as fully as possible, with such illustrative 
references to the Aid, by the pupil, as the subject discussed calls 
for. This should be followed by such questions from the 
teacher as will bring out any omitted facts. Then, in farther 
practical illustration of the facts and principles stated, or for 
the enforcement of any hygienic precepts pointed out in the 
lesson, the teacher will add such information as he may have 
at command, and which in his judgment may be appropriate 
and valuable. Finally, for the purpose of " fixing" in the minds 
of all, and arranging in proper order, the points of the topic in 
hand, let the teacher, by a series of review questions, draiv out 
what has been learned, in answers from the whole class. 

6. We will here repeat a suggestion which appears in the 
preface of this book, namely: that in the preparation of the 
lessons by the pupils when using this Manual as a text book, 
they must have access to the Aid. While such access to the 
Aid, by the pupils, is absolutely necessary in preparing a lesson 
from this book, it is also very desirable in studying a lesson 
from any other text book. By a little wise planning the teacher 
can always provide such opportunity for reference to the proper 
charts on the part of the members of the physiology class, with- 
out any disturbance of other pupils. 

7. During a drill exercise, or recitation, the Aid should be 
brought close before the pupils, at a convenient elevation and 
under proper conditions of light, so that all may clearly see 
any part or organ to which reference is made by way of 
illustration. 



INDEX 



COMPLETE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



{Referring to Fifth Chart of Aid,) 



I. THE CRANIAL AND SPINAL SYSTEM. 



^O. 


Common Name. 


Latin or Professional Name. 


1 


Brain. 


Cerebrum. 


2 


Small Brain. 


Cerebellum. 


3 


Tree of Life. 


Arbor vitae. 


4 


Varol's Bridge. 


Pons Varolii. 


5 


Three fold Nerve. 


Nervus Trigeminus. 


6 


Abducent Nerve. 


Nervus abducens. 


7 


Face and Sound Nerve. 


Nervus facialis et acousi 



8 Tongue and Pharynx Nerve. 

9 Willis' Accessory Nerve. 

10 Loose cavity containing lung 

and stomach nerve ducts. 

11 Lower tongue nerve. 

12 Descending branches hypo- 

glossal nerves. 

13 Cranial portion of the Spinal 

Cord. 

14 Decussate pyramid. 

15 Part of cervical spinal cord. 



Nervus glosso-pharyngeus, 
vagus et accessorius. 

Nervus accessorius Willisii. 

Nervus vagus pneumo-gas- 
tricus. 

Nervus hypoglossus. 

Rami descendens nervi hypo- 
glossi. 

Medulla oblongata. 

Decussatio pyramidum. 
Pars cervicalis meduUaB spi- 
nalis. 



No. Common Name. 

16 Part of thoracic spinal cord. 

17 Bulbous expansion at 

end of spinal cord. 

18 Terminal threads, spinal 

cord, 

19 Neck nerves 1. 

20 Neck nerves 8. 

21 Network of neck nerves. 

22 Network of arm nerves. 

23 Back bone nerve 1. 

24 Back bone nerve ^. 

25 Nerves between ribs. 

26 Loin nerve 1. 

27 Loin nerve 5. 

28 Network of loin nerves. 

29 Anterior crural nerve. 

30 Hip — abdominal nerve. 



31 Hip — groin nerve. 

^ Groin skin nerve. 

33 Obturator nerve. 

34 Sacral nerve 1. 

35 Sacral nerve 5. 

36 Network of sacral nerves. 

37 Coccyx nerves. 

38 Sympathetic nerve. 

39 Upper cervical ganglion. 

40 Middle cervical ganglion. 

41 Lower cervical ganglion. 

42 Thoracic ganglia. 

43 Loin ganglia. 

44 Sacral ganglia. 

45 Coccyx ganglion. 

46 Connecting branches be- 

tween sacral and bvmpa- 
thetic nerves. 



Latin or Professional Name. 
Pars thoracica medullas spi- 
nalis. 



Filum terminale. 

Nervus cervicalis 1, 

Nervus cervicalis 8. 

Plexus cervicalis. 

Plexus brachialis. 

Nervus dorsalis 1. 

Nervus dorsalis 2. 

Nervi intercostales. 

Nervus lumbalis 1. 

Nervus lumbalis 5. 

Plexus lumbalis. 

Nervus cruralis anterior. 

Nervus ilio — hypogas tri- 
cus (ramus exterior et in- 
terior). 

Nervus ilio inguinalis. 

Nervus inguino cutaneous. 

Nervus obturatorius. 

Nervus sacralis 1. 

Nervus sacralis 5. 

Plexus sacralis. 

Nervi coccygei. 

Nervus sympaticus. 

Ganglion cervicale superior. 

Ganglion cervicale medium. 

Ganglion cervicale inferior. 

Ganglia thoracica. 

Ganglia lumbalia. 

Ganglia sacralia. 

Ganglion coccygeum. 



No. Common Name. 

47 Sciatic nerve (Hip nerve). 

48 Groin nerve. 

49 Shoulder bone nerves. 

50 Branches of skin and axle 

nerves. 

51 Arm skin nerves, internal 

posterior. 

52 Arm skin nerve, small in- 

ternal. 

53 Branches middle skin nerves 

(arm). 

54 Middle arm skin nerve. 

55 Branches skin palm nerves of 

middle skin nerve. 

56 Branches of middle under 

skin nerve over ulna. 

57 Branches under skin nerves, 

overlying cutaneous mus- 
cle. 

58 Radial nerve branches. 

59 Voluntary ulna nerve. 

60 Voluntary fiuger nerves. 

61 Network of arm pit nerves. 

62 Middle nerve, sending 

branches to thumb, index 
and middle finger and 
radial side of ring finger. 

63 Ulna nerve. 

64 Voluntary ulna nerve, 

65 Spiral muscular nerve lying 

against radius. 

66 External elbow joint nerve. 

67 Superficial radial nerve. 

68 Musculo cutaneus nerve. 

69 Anterior leg nerve. 

70 External anterior femoral 

nerve. 



Latin or Professional Name. 

Nervus ischi adieus. 

Nervus inguinalis. 

Nervi supraclaviculares. 

Rami cutaneus et nervi ax- 
illaris. 

Nervi cutane us brachii, in- 
ternus posterior. 

Nervi cutaneus brachii inter- 
nus (minor). 

Ramus nervi cutanei medii. 

Nervup cutaneus brachii 
medius v. internus major. 

Ramus cutaneus palmaris, 
nerv. cutan. medii. 

Ramus cutaneus ulnaris 
nerv. cutan. medii. 

Ramus cutaneous nerv. mus- 
culo cutanei. 

Ramus nervi radiales. 
Nervus ulnaris volaris. 
Nervus digitales volaris. 
Plexus axillaris (brachialis). 
Nervus medianus. 



Nervus ulnaris. 
Nervus ulnaris volaris. 
Nervus musculo — spiralus v. 

radialis. 
Nervus interosseus externus. 
Nervus radialis superficialis. 
Nervus musculo — cutaneus. 
Nervus cruralis anterior. 
Nervus cutaneus femoris 

anterior externa. 



No. Common Name. 

71 Groin nerve. 

72 Groin skin nerve. 

73 TjRrge saphenic nerve. 

74 Middle anterior femoral 

nerve. 

75 Internal anterior femoral 

nerve lying against small 
saphenic. 

76 Branches of hip abdominal 

nerves. 

77 Branches hip groin nerves. 

78 Branches muscular leg 

nerves. 

79 Superficial peroneal nerve 

fibular. 

80 Internal foot skin nerve. 

81 Middle foot skin nerve. 

82 Bsternal leg skin nerve. 

83 Deep peroneal or fibular 

nerve. 

84 Deep branch of peroneal 

nerve. 

85 External branch of peroneal 

nerve. 

86 Cervical or neck back bone 

joint. 

87 Back bone joint (1). 

88 Back bone joint (12). 

89 Loin back bone joint (1). 

90 Loin back boue joint (2). 

91 Sacrum bone. 

92 Coccyx bone. 

93 First rib. 

94 Last rib. 

95 Crest of ilium bone. 



Latin or Profeeeional Name. 

Nervus inguinalie. 

Nervus inguino cutaneus 

Nervus saphenus major. 

Nervus cutaneus femoris 
anterior medius. 

Nervus cutaneus femoris 
anterior internus v. saphe- 
nus minor. 

Rami nervi ilio hipogastrici. 

Rami nervi ilio inguinalis. 
Rami musculares nervi cru- 

ralis. 
Nervus peronseus superfi- 

cialis, con. 
Nervus cutaneus dorsi pedis 

internus, et. 
Nervus cutaneus dorsi pedis 

medius. 
Nervus cutaneus cruris 

externus. 
Nervus peronseus profundus. 

Ramus internus peronaeus 

profundus. 
Ramus externus peroneeus 

profundus. 
Yertebra cervici (7). 

Vertebra dorsi (1). 
Vertebra dorsi (12). 
Vertebra lumbalis (1). 
Vertebra lumbalis (2). 
Os sacrum. 
Os coccygi. 
Costa prima. 
Costa termina. 
Crista ossis ilii. 



No. Common Name. Latin or Professional Name. 

96 UDderlying collar muscle Musculus sterno — cleido 

connecting with dternum. mastoidens. 

97 Front scalene muscle. Musculus scalenus anticus. 

98 Middle scalene muscle. Musculus scalenus medins. 

99 Internal intercostal muscleb. Musculi intercostales inter- 

ni. 

Musculi intercostales exter- 
ni. 

Musculus quadratus lum bo- 
rum. 

Musculus psoas major. 

Musculus iliacus intemus. 

Musculus deltoideus. 

Musculus pectoralis major. 

Musculus biceps flexon cub- 
iti. 

Plica cubiti. 

Caput ulnae. 

Aponeurosis palmaris. 

Musculus palmaris brevis. 
Vena cephaiica brachii. 
Vena basilica. 
Vena mediana basilica. 
Vena mediana cephaiica. 
Caput ossis hiimerL 
Processus coracoideus. 
Musculus deltoideus. 

Musculus pectoralis minor. 

Musculus biceps flexor cub- 
iti. 

Caput breve, musculus bici- 
pitis. 

Caput longum, musculus bi- 
cipitis. 

Musculus coraco-brachialis. 

Musculus interna brachialis. 



100 External intercostal mus- 

cles. 

101 Square loin muscle. 

102 Large loin muscle. 

103 Internal iliacal muscle. 

104 Deltoid muscle (shoulder). 

105 Large breast muscle. 

106 Flexible forearm muscle. 

107 Fold in forearm. 

108 Head of ulna. 

109 Aponeuroses of the palm. 

110 Fleshy ball of thumb. 

111 Short palm muscle. 

112 Cephalic vein (arm). 

113 Basilical vein. 

114 Middle basilical vein. 

115 Middle cephalic vein. 

116 Head of humeris bone. 

117 Sharp process of scapula. 

118 Deltoid muscle. 

119 See No. 105. 

120 Small breast muscle. 

121 Flexible muscle of biceps. 

122 Short head of biceps muse) e. 

123 Long head of biceps muscle. 

124 Coracoid arm muscle. 

125 Internal arm muscle. 



No. Common Name. 

126 Internal head of extending 

triceps muscle. 

127 Long head of extending tri- 

ceps musole. 

128 Muscle, serving to turn 

palm of hand upwards. 

129 Muscle, long, round extend- 

ing wrist. 

130 Muscle, serving to turn 

palm of hand downward. 

131 Round wrist muscle bend- 

ing or turuing. 

132 Short, like functions as 128. 

133 Common bending fingei 

muscles. 

134 One of the wrist bending 

muscles. 

135 Long bending striking mus- 

cle. 

136 Muscles serving thumb. 

137 Drawing thumb to the in- 

dex finger. 

138 Shoulder artery. 

139 Arm arteries and veins. 

^ . J [ Arteries and veins of uJna. 

142 Upper anterior spine of 

ilium. 

143 Tailor's muscle. 

144 Middle gluteal muscle (serv- 

ing to turn thigh in and 
outward). 

145 Deep leg stretching muscle. 

146 Straight femoral muscle. 

147 External vastus muscle. 

148 Muscle, serving to bring 

thigh together. 



Latin or Professional Name. 
Caput internum, m. tricipitis 

extensoris. 
Caput longum m. tricipitis 

extensoris. 
MusculuB supinator loogus. 

Musculus extensor carpi 

radialis longus. 
Musculus pronator teres. 

Musculus flexor carpi radia- 
lis. 

Musculus supinator brevis. 

Musculi flexores, digitorum 
communes. 

Musculus flexor carpi ulna- 
ris. 

Musculus flexor pollicis 
longus. 

Musculus abductor et flexor 
brevis pollicis. 

Musculus abductor pollicis. 

Arteria axillaris. 

Arterige et ven^e brachialis. 

Arteriae et venae ulnaris. 

Spina ilii anterior superior. 

Musculus sartorius. 
Musculus glutaeus medius. 



Musculus teusor faciae latae. 
Musculus rectus femoris. 
Musculus vastus externus. 
Musculus pectinaeus. 



No. Common Name. 

149 LoDg drawing muscle. 

J 50 Large drawing muscle. 

151 Leg muscle. 

l.")2 InterDal vastus muscle. 

1.53 Tendon extending leg. 

154 Knee. 

155 Shin. 

156 Internal ) Ankle joint pro- 

157 External ) jections. 

158 Transverse ligament. 

159 Foremost tibial muscle. 

160 Muscle, extendmg toes and 

foot. 

161 Long peroneal muscle (Fib- 

ula). 



Latin or Professional Name. 
Musculus abductor longus. 
Musculus abductor magii us. 
Musculus cruralis. 
Musculus vastus internus. 
Tendo extensorius cruris. 
Patella. 
Tibia. 

Malleolus internus. . 
Malleolus extemus. 
Ligamentum fcransversum. 
Musculus tibialis anticus. 
Musculus extensor digitor- 

um pedis longus. 
Musculus peronaeus longus. 



162 


Short peroneal muscle. 


Musculus peronseus brevis. 


163 


Long extending striking 


Musculus extensor poUicis 




foot muscle. 


pedis loDgus. 


164 


Counteracting on 160. 


Musculus extensor digitor- 
um pedis brevis. 


165 


Short striking foot muscle. 


Musculus extensor pollicis 
pedis brevis. 


166 


Sole muscle. 


Musculus soleus. 


167 


Femoral artery. 


Arteria femoralis. 


168 


Femoral vein. 


Vena femoralis. 


169 


Large saphenic vein. 


Vena saphena magna. 



II. THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 

DISTBIBUTION OF FACIAL AND PNEUMOGASTBIO 
NERVES. 



1 Descending thoracic aorta. Aorta deecendens thoracica. 

2 Innominate artery. Arteria innominata. 

3 Right under-shoulder artery. Arteria subclavia dextra. 



No. Common Name. 

4 Right carotid artery. 

5 Internal carotid artery. 

6 External carotid artery. 

7 Upper thyroid artery. 

8 External jaw artery. 

9 Occipital artery. 

10 Upper ear artery. 

11 Temporal artery. 

12 Pulmonary arteries and 

veins. 

13 In tercostal arteries and vein s. 

14 Descending aorta (abdom- 

inal) with lower aortic 
plexus. 

15 Coeliac artery and plexus. 

16 Kidney artery and plexus. 

17 Upper mesenteric artery 

with plexus. 

18 Lower mesenteric artery 

with plexus. 

19 Common iliacal artery. 

20 Network of upper abdominal 

nerves. 

21 Network of haemorrhoidal 

nerves. 

22 Network of nerves surround- 

ing bladder. 

23 Network of prostate nerves. 

24 Network of lower abdominal 

nerves. 

25 Lower phrenic arteries with 

network of phrenic nerves. 



Latin or ProfessioQal Name. 
Arteria carotis communis 

dextra. 
Arteria carotis interna. 
Arteria carotis externa. 
Arteria thyroidea sup. 
Arteria maxillaris externa (v. 

facialis). 
Arteria occipitalis. 
Arteria auricularis superior. 
Arteria temporalis. 
Arterise et venae pulmonales. 

Arteriae et venae intercostalis 
Aorta descendens abdom- 

inalis, con plexus aorticus 

inferior. 
Arteria coeliaca con plexus 

coeliacus. 
Arteria renalis con plexus 

renal is. 
Arteria mesenterica superior 

con plexuSj mesentericus 

sup. 
Arteria mesenterica inferior 

con plexus mesentericus 

inferior. 
Arteria iliaca communis. 
Plexus hypogastricus su- 
perior. 
Plexus haemorrhoidales. 

Plexus vesicalis. 

Plexus prostaticus. 

Plexus hypogastricus in- 
ferior. 

Arteriae phrenicae inferiores 
con plexus phrenicus. 



No. Common Name. 

26 Great network of stomacli 

Derves. 

27 Splenic artery with network 

of splenic nerves. 

28 Liver artery with network of 

liver nerves. 

29 Upper network with semi- 

lunar ganoflion. 

30 Loin ganglion. 

31 Sacral ganglion. 

32 Thoracic gland 1. 

33 Thoracic gland 7. 

34 Large splanchnic nerve. 

35 Small splanchnic nerve. 

36 Upper network of thoracic 

nerves. 

37 Lower ganglion of neck 

nerves. 

38 Middle ganglion of neck 

nerves. 

39 Upper ganglion of neck 

nerves. 

40 Network of nerve molles. 

41 Front ear nerve. 

42 Posterior ear nerve. 

43 Facial nerves and branches 

causing goose flesh on skin. 

44 Small occipital and upper 

ear nerve. 

45 Willis' accessory nerve. 

46 Network of neck nerves. 

47 Vagus nerve. 

48 Recurrent nerve. 

49 Phrenic nerve. 

50 Network of arm nerves. 

51 Network of loin nerves. 

52 Network of sacral nerves. 



Latin or Professional Name. 
Plexus gastricus magnus. 

Arteria splenica con plexus 

splenicus. 
Arteria hepatica con plexus 

hepaticus. 
Plexus Solaris con ganglion 

semi-lunarius. 
Ganglion lum bale. 
Ganglion sacrale. 
Ganglion thoracicum 1. 
Ganglion thoracicum 7. 
Nervus splanchnicus major. 
Nervus splanchnicus minor. 
Plexus thoracicus superior. 

Ganglion cervicale inferior. 

Ganglion cervicale medina. 

Ganglion cervicale superior. 

Plexus nervorum mollium. 

Nervus auricularis anterior. 

Nervus auricularis posterior. 

Nervus facialis et pes an- 
serius. 

Nervus occipitalis minor et 
nervus auricularis supe- 
rior. 

Nervus accessorius Willisii. 

Plexus cervicales. 

Nervus vagus. 

Nervus recurrens. 

Nervus ph ; t n icus. 

Plexus biachialis. 

Plexus lumbalis. 

Plexus sacralis. 



No. Common Name. 

53 Nerves betweeu ribs (inter- 

costal. 

54 Network of nerves of the 

gullet (cesophagiis.) 

55 Network of nerves of lungs. 

56 Network of nerves of phar- 

ynx. 

57 Lower jawbone. 

58 Hyoid bone. 

59 Shoulder bone or clavicle. 

60 First rib. 

61 Second rib. 

62 Eleventh rib. 

63 Transverse process of the 

loin baekbone. 

64 Sacrum bone. 

65 Pubis bone 

66 Large cheek muscle. 

67 Lower digastric jaw muscle. 

68 Chewing muscle. 

69 Salivary or parotid gland. 

70 Under jaw gland. 

71 Sterno-hyoid muscle. 

72 Foremost scalene muscle. 

73 Middle and posterior scal- 

ene muscle. 

74 Midriff. 

75 Square loin muscle. 

76 Right bronchus. 

77 Kidney. 

78 Upper kidney gland. 

79 Gullet. 

80 Stomach. 

81 Jejunum intestine. 

82 Colon intestine. 



Latin or Professional Name. 
Nervi intercostalis. 

Plexus oesophagens. 

Plexus pulmonalis. 
Plexus pharyngens. 

Os maxillare inferius. 

Os hyoides. 

Glavicula. 

Costa I. 

Costa II. 

Costa XI. 

Processus transversus verte- 
brae lumbalis. 
Os sacrum. 
Os pubis (symphysis). 
Musculus zygomanticus 

major. 
Musculus digastricus max.l- 

lae inferioris. 
Musculus masseter. 
Glandula parotis. 
Glandula sub maxillaris. 
Musculus sterno-hyoidens. 
Musculus scalenus anticus. 
Musculus scalenus medius 

et posticus. 
Diaphragm. 
Musculus quadratus lum* 

borum. 
Bronchus dexter. 
Renes. 

Glandula supra renalis. 
CEsophagus. 
Stomachus. 
Intestinum jejunum. 
Intestinum colon. 



No. Common Name. 

83 Rectum intestine. 

84 Bladder. 

85 Ureter. 

86 Procumbent gland. 

87 Carryin g Tessel. 
8S Spermatic cord.- 

89 Internal spermatic arteries 
and veins with network 
of internal spermatic 
nerves. 



Latin or Professional Name. 
Intestmum rectum. 
Vesica urinaria. 
Ureter. 

Glandula prostratus. 
Vas deferens. 
Chorda sperm atica. 
Arteria et vena spermatica 

con plexus spermaticus in- 

ternus. 



III. THE SENSE OF SMELL. 



VERTICAIi SECTION OF NASAL CAVITY^ 



1 


Cavity in frontal bone. 


2 


Nasal bone. 


3 


Sphenoidal cavity. 


4 


Gribiform plate of the eth- 




moidal bone. 


5 


Upper jawbone. 


6 


Incisive canal. 


7 


Hard palnte. 


8 


Palate molles aofainst soft 




palate. 


9 


Tongue. 


10 


Nasal partition. 


11 


Posterior nasal cavity. 


12 


Roof of mouth. 


13 


Tonsils. 


14 


Pharyngeal palate arch. 


15 


Olfactory nerve. 


16 


Nasal-palate nerve of Scarpa. 



17 Incisive ganglion. 



Sinus frontalis ossis frontis. 
Os nasi. 

Sinus sphenoidalis. 
Lamina cribrosa ossis eth- 

moidea. 
Os maxillare superioris. 
Canalis incivious. 
Palatum durum. 
Palatum molle v. velum 

palatinum. 
LiDgua. 
Septum nasi. 
Posterior nares. 
Pharynx. 
Tonsilla. 

Arcus pharyngo — palatinus. 
Nervus olfactorius. 
Nervus naso- palatinus scar- 

pse. 
Ganglion incisivum. 



IV. THE SENSE OF TASTE. 



NERVES OF PALATE AND TOKGTTE. 



No. 


Common Name. 


Latin or Professional Name. 


1 


Taste neives. 


Nervi palatiLi. 


2 


Tongue and pharynx nerve. 


Nervus glosso-pharyngeus. 


3 


Branches of three-fold taste 


Pamus gustatorius nervi 




nerve. 


trigemini. 


4 


Branches of No. 2. 


Bamus nervi glosso-phar- 
yngei (pro. m. glos£o-pala- 
tino). 


5 


Upper lip. 


Labium superioris. 


6 


Hard palate. 


Palatum durum. 


7 


Soft palate. 


Velum palatinum v. palatum 
molle. 


8 


Uvula, 


Uvula. 


9 


Side nerve of tongue. 


Arcus glosso-palatinus. 


10 


Arch of pharynx. 


Arcus pharyngo-palatinuB. 


11 


Tonsil. 


Tonsilla. 


12 


Entrance to gullet. 


Isthmus faucium. 


13 


Boot of tongue. 


Badix lingua. 


14 


Tongue. 


Lingua. 



V. THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 



VERTICAL. SECTION OF ORBIT AND GLOBE OF EYE. 



1 Frontal bone. 

2 Upper jav^bone. 

3 Patty matter. 

4 Frontal muscle. 

5 Upper eyelid. 

6 Lower eyelid. 

7 Lower oblique eye muscle. 

8 Rectal eye muscle, lower. 



Os frontie. 

Os maxillare superius. 

Adipose tissue. 

Musculus frontalis. 

Palpebra superior. 

Palpebra inferior. 

Musculus obliquus oculi 
inferior. 

Musculus rectus oculi in- 
ferior. 



No. 
9 

10 

n 

12 
13 
14 

15 

16 
17 

18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 



Common Name. 
Rectal eye muscle, external. 

Bectal eye muscle, upper. 

Upper eyelid muscle. 

Eye nerve. 
Conjunction of Evelids. 



Latin or Professional Name. 

Musculus rectus oculi, ex- 
ternus. 

Musculus rectus oculi su- 
perior. 

Musculus levator palpebrse 
superior. 

Nervus opticus. 

Conjunctiva palpebrse. 



Reflection of coDJ unction from inner surface of eyelids to 

globe. 
Conjunction of eyelids and Conjunctiva scleroticse (bul- 

white of eye. bi.) 

Conjunction of 'cornea. Conjunctiva cornea. 

Strong horny membrane Cornea. 

forming oufer part of eye. 
Membrane of aqueous humor, lining anterior chamber. 



Anterior camera. 

Posterior camera. 

Sinus of iris. 

Sclerotic tunic. 

Crystalline lens. 

Ciliary body. 

Vitreous body, glaSsy matter. 

Tunic of the retina. 

Tunic of the choroid. 



Camera oculi anterior 
Camera oculi posterior. 
Sinus venosis iridis. 
Tunica sclerotica. 
Lens crystallina. 
Corpus ciliare. 
Corpus vitreum. 
Tunica retina. 
Tunica choroidea. 



VI. THE SENSE OF HEAEING. 

THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF HEARING EXPOSED 
WITHOUT BONY STRUCTURES. 



1 


External ear. 


Auricula externa. 


2 


Auditory canal. 


Meatus auditor, externus. 


3 


Tympanum. 


Membrana tympani. 


4 


Hammer. 


Malleus. 


5 


Handle of same, long. 


Processus longus mallei. 



No. Common Name. 

6 Mannubrium of liammer 

7 Anvil. 

8 Short process of same. 

9 Long process of same. 

10 Orbicular ossicle. 

11 Stapes. 

12 Vestibule. 

13 Upper semicircular canal. 

14 Posterior semicircular canal. 

15 Lower semicircular canal. 

16 Shell, spiral cavity. 

17 Cupola of shell. 



Latin or Professional Name. 

Mannubrium mallei. 

Incus. 

Processus brevis inoudis. 

Processus longus incudis. 

Ossiculum orbiculare Silvii. 

Stapes. 

Vestibulum. 

Canalis semicircularis su- 
perior. 

Canalis semicircularis pos- 
terior. 

Canalis semicircularis in- 
ferior. 

Cochlea. 

Cupola cochleae. 



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have been obtained by us 
without regard to cost. Al- 
though we could purchase 
maps in this country, such 
as are used by most globe 
manufacturers, at a fraction 
of what we have to pay for 
those we use, we prefer to 
have them prepared for us 
by th e celebrated geograph 
ical publishers, W. & A. K. 
Johnston, or Edinburgh, 
Scotland, which is a suf- 
ficient guarantee of their 
accuracy and finish. They 
are entirely new, exhibit- 
ing the most recent geo- 
graphical discoveries and 
political changes, and for 
fineness of engraving and 
beauty of coloring are un- 
rivaled. 




Terrestrial Globes. 



To the teaclicr of Goo{,'nipliy ;uid 
Astronomy n ^ood ^lobe is what 
chart and compass are to the mar- 
iner. It is impossible to give cor- 
rect ideas of these subjects with- 
out it. The new education recog- 
nizes, and object-training demands 
the globe. For home and school it 
is therefore indispensable. Like 
the dictionary it should always be 
close at hand for reference. No 
article of furniture gives so refin- 
ing an elTect to the home or school 
as a good globe. 

The spheres are ma*- e of papier- 
mache of the best quality, lirnily 
braced from the center, and cov- 
ered with a composition that can- 
not easily be dented or cracked. 
In case they accidentally become 
soiled they may be cleaned Avith a 
damp rag or sponge. 

The globes are supported by a 
metal pedestal. They are firm and 
strong, and not likely to break. 
There is no elue to give way, or 
imperfect joints to come apart as 
in the case of wood supports. The 





Plain. 



mtridians and horizon holder 
are metal, nickel phited. 

PLAIN. 

No. 24. 12 in., incl. iCck cas3 - $15 00 

No. 26. 8 " ' " •• - 8.00 

No. 28, 6" no case - - 5.00 



No, 20. 12 ir., 
No. 22. 8'' 



MEBIDIAN. 
incl. Icck case 



$20 00 
10.00 



Meridian. 



THE GLOBE MANUAL, 

One copy of "The Globe Man- 
ual" accompanies each one of 
the Globes, w i t h o u t e x t r a 
charge. It contains about 100 
pages, and forms a complete key 
to the globe's sections, embrac- 
ing: Plans for map drawing, 
astronomical and geographical 
definitions, the earth, ocean cur- 
rents, temperature, day and 
night, time, seasons, latitude 
and longitude, with problems 
and illustrations. 



CENTRAL SCHOOL SUPPLY HOUSE, - CHICAGO, ILL. 



HAND BELLS. 



Polished Bell Metal. 
Black Enameled Handles, 



No. 


4. 


— 3i inches . . . 


.$1.25 


No. 


5. 


-31 '^ ... 


_ 1.50 


No 


6. 


-41 - ... 


- 2 00 


No. 


6A. 


-5i - --. 


. 2 50 



* 




SWISS HAND BELLS. 



Polished Silver. 



No. 6B.— 3 inches ... $150 

No. 7. -3^ '♦ .... 2 00 

No. 8. --3I " .... 2.50 

No. 9. — 4f ♦' extra fine 

intonation 3 25 



^"^ COCOBOLA BASE. 

Nickel Plated 

DAISY CALL BELL ^HIIJl^Bl packed one in a case. 

No. 2- 2^^ inch -- $1.25 

No. 3.— Silver Plated Bell, with Silver Plated Metal Ease 1.75 

Central School Supply House, Chicago, ill. 



NUMERAL FRAMES. 




The Numeral Frame is not 

only a very popular but an 
almost indispensable aid in 
teaching children to count, 
and in giving them correct 
ideas of numbers. 

This frame is used in Prim- 
ary, Intermediate, and Gram- 
mar Schools, and greatly as- 
sists in teaching to count, 
add, subtract, multiply, and is 
especially useful in illustrat- 
ing fractions, the squares and 
roots of numbers. 

Nicely made and varnished having 144 colored balls $1.50 

100 " " 1.2.5 



DUSTLESS ERASER. 

^ai^^y^ They are made of Felt, and the ends of 

^^^^^^^i^^^^k ^^® fiber only come in contact with the 

r^^^^S^^?^^^^ board. It holds the dust and can easily be 

^jiSy ^^^^^^ cleaned by rapping it on any hard surface. 

^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^^ It cleans the board thoroughly and lasts as 

long as any duster made. 

Price per dozen in neat Cardboard Boxes -.. SI. .50 

Single Sample, mailed 15 

CRAYONS. 

White, per gross box $ .10 

White, per 24 gross case 2.25 

White, per 50 gross case -- 4.20 

White, per 100 gross case 8.00 

Assorted Colors, per gross box -.. 1.25 

CENTRAL SCHOOL SUPPLY HOUSE, 
CHICAGO, ILL. 



SCHOOL RULES. 



2 



\ 



No. 4. Twelve-inch soft wood rule, stained, printed scale. Put 
up one gross in a box. Price, per gross, $2.on. 




6. Twelve-inch, soft wood, stained, with metric system 
Put up in one gross boxes. Price, per gross, $2.25. 

No. 11. Schol- 
ars' twelve- 
inch picture 
rules, animals 
on one side, 
designed for 
drawing. One 
gross in a 
box. Price, 
per gross, 
$2.50. 

No . 23 . 
Twelve - inch 
hard maple 
rule, varnish- 
ed both sides, 
scale printed 
on bevel. Put 
up one dozen 
in a box. 
P rice, per 
gross, $4.00. 




II 



i i 



n 



2 



'1/ 



ii3:x, 



?/ 



No. 30. 
.i Twelve - inch 
K hard maple 
I rule, with 
f metric and 
j lineal scale, 
i varnished, 
f hole in end. 
» Put up two 
dozen in Ibox. 
) P r i c e , p e r 
\ box, ^2.00. 



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